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NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 8 Peasants, Zamindars and The State Agrarian Society and the Mughal Empire
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Peasants, Zamindars and The State Agrarian Society and the Mughal Empire
Chapter: 8
| THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY (PART – II) |
TEXTUAL QUESTIONS ANSWER
1. What are the problems in using the Ain-i-Akbari as a source for reconstructing agrarian history? How do historians deal with this situation?
Ans: Ain-i-Akbari was written by Abul Fazl in 1598 C.E. He had revised it five times to avoid any kind of errors. He collected and compiled all his information with an extra caution. He verified and cross-checked all the oral testimonies before their inclusion in his book. In fact, he wanted to minimise the chances of transcriptional errors.
However, many historians have found some problem in this book. First of all, they have found out many errors in totalling. Secondly, the quantitative data has not been uniformly collected from all the provinces. For example, Abul Fazl has not given the caste composition of Zamindars in Bengal and Orissa. Thirdly, he had not given any vital parameters in the determination of prices and wages. He based his assessment on the data that he got from Agra.
To get rid of these drawbacks, the historians use all the documents that they found in Gujarat, Rajasthan and Maharashtra in the 17th and 18th centuries. They have also come across many documents of East India Company which throw a light on the agriculture of Mughal times.
2. To what extent is it possible to characterise agricultural production in the sixteenth-seventeenth centuries as subsistence agriculture? Give reasons for your answer.
Ans: (a) In India a great variety of crops were produced. Bengal alone produced 50 varieties of rice. But the focus on the cultivation of basic crops does not mean that only subsistence agriculture existed in medieval India.
(b) The Mughal state encouraged peasants to cultivate crops which brought in revenue especially cotton and sugarcane.
(c) Cotton was grown over a wide area including Central India and the Deccan plateau, whereas Bengal was famous for its sugar.
(d) Cash crops were grown included many varieties of oil seeds including mustard and lentils.
(e) Thus an average peasant grew both commercial and subsistence crops.
3. Describe the role played by women in agricultural production.
Ans: (a) Women worked shoulder to shoulder with men in the fields. While men tilled and ploughed the lands, the women sowed, weeded and threshed the harvest. Agricultural production at this time depended on the labour and resources of the entire household.
(b) Certain tasks like spinning yarn, kneading clay for pottery and embroidery were done only by women. In fact the peasant and artisan women worked not only in the fields but even went to their employer’s houses and even to the markets if necessary.
(c) Women’s role in an agrarian society was of great importance as the children they produced provided the required labour. High mortality rates due to various factors led to a shortage of wives. This led to the system of bride price given to the bride’s family.
(d) Among the landed gentry, women had the right to inherit property. Women, including widows, participated in the rural land market selling property which they had inherited especially in Punjab.
(e) Both Hindu and Muslim women inherited zamindaris which they were free to sell or mortgage. In eighteenth century Bengal had many women-zamindars. In fact, the Rajshahi zamindari which was one of the most famous of the time was headed by a woman.
4. Discuss, with examples, the significance of monetary transactions during the period under consideration.
Ans: (a) The political stability of the Mughal, Ming (China), Safavid (Iran) and Ottoman (Turkey) empires led to increased overland trade from China to the Mediterranean Sea.
(b) Discovery of new lands also gave an impetus to Asia’s trade with Europe. As a result enormous amount of silver entered India as payment for goods bought from India.
(c) This benefitted India as she did not have enough resources of silver. Therefore from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries there was sufficient reserves of silver in India and the silver rupya was available readily.
(d) This resulted in an unprecedented expansion in the minting of coins and circulation of money allowing the Mughal state to extract taxes and revenues in cash.
(e) Giovanni Careri’s account gives us an idea of the phenomenal amounts of cash and commodity transactions which took place in seventeenth century India.
5. Examine the evidence that suggests that land revenue was important for the Mughal fiscal system.
Ans: Land revenue was the main source of income during the Mughal period. Therefore the – State considered it vital to create an administrative apparatus to ensure control over agricultural production. This arrangement was fixed to collected revenue in the whole country. There was an office (daftar) of the Diwan who supervised the fiscal system of the Mughal Empire.
The collection of revenue had two important stages. First of all, the revenue was assessed. Secondly, it was collected. The first stage was called as the Jama and the second stage was referred to as the Hasil. According to a decree of Akbar, it was the duty of revenue collector (amil- guzar) to make cultivators pay in cash. However, the option of making payment in kind was also kept open. Thus, monetary transactions during the Mughal period were quite significant.
6. To what extent do you think caste was a factor in influencing social and economic relations in agrarian society?
Ans: Cate has greatly influenced social and economic relations of the people in an agrarian society. Because of caste-based inequalities or distinctions, we find many heterogeneous groups in the society. Many of those who tilled the land, worked as menials or agricultural labourers (majurs). As they did menial jobs in society, they were relegated to poverty. They had the lowest position in the caste hierarchy as they lacked resources.
Such caste-based distinctions and inequalities were also found in the Muslim communities where people did scavenging. They lived outside the boundaries of the village. Thus, there was a direct co-relation between caste, poverty and social status at the lower level. But at the intermediate level, these co-relations were not so marked. In the 17th century, Marwar Rajputs were considered as important as the Jats, though these Jats had a lower status in the caste hierarchy. On the other hand, the Gauravas, who cultivated land near Vrindavan in Uttar Pradesh, sought Rajput status in the 17th century. Similarly Ahirs, Gujjars and Malis rose in the caste hierarchy because they earned huge profits. In the end, we can say that caste in a great determining factor in both social and economic relations.
7. How were the lives of forest dwellers transformed in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries?
Or
Examine how were the lives of forest dwellers transformed in the sixteenth and seventeeth centuries.
Ans: Forest dwellers were often termed as Jangli in the Mughal period. But it did not mean that they had no civilisation. Rather, it means that the forest-dwellers were those people who earned their livelihood from the produce of forests. They were also engaged in hunting and shifting cultivation. They mostly performed specific seasonal activities. For example, the Bhails collected the forest produce in spring. They went on fishing in summer, they cultivated their land in the months of monsoon and went for hunting in autumn and winter. So they exercised a perpetual mobility.
Capturing and supply of elephants: Many forest-dwellers captured elephants. They supplied these elephants to the royal army. So the peshkash levied from the forest people often included a supply of elephants.
The spread of commercial agriculture: Many forest dwellers made use of the spread of commercial agriculture. They exported honey, gum and wax to other countries in the seventeenth century.
Overland trade: Many tribesmen like the Lohanis of Punjab were engaged in an overland trade between India and Afghanistan. So most of them had become Zamindars. A few of them had even become kings.
Military service: Many tribesmen rendered military services to the king. They also demanded when they became the kings, that their fraternity should provide military service. For example, the Ahom kings had people who provided them military service in exchange for land.
8. Analyse the role of Zamindars during the Mughal period.
Or
Explain why the zamindars were central to the agrarian relations in the Mughal period.
Ans: The zamindars were that class of the people who did not directly participate in the processes of agricultural production. They enjoyed an elevated status in society.
(i) The zamindars were the proprietors of their land. They considered their land as their property (milkiyat). They could sell, give and mortgage it. They enjoyed many social and economic privileges because of their superior status in society.
(ii) The zamindars belonged to the upper caste. It added to their exalted status in society.
(iii) The zamindars rendered certain services (khidmat) for the state. So they got respect and position in the state.
(iv) The zamindars became very powerful because they collected revenue on behalf of the state. They also got financial compensation for this work.
(v) Another source for the power of zamindars in society was their control over the military resources. They kept a fortress as well as an armed unit comprising cavalry, artillery and infantry.
(vi) The zamindars played an important role in inhabiting and developing the agricultural land. They helped in the settlements of farmers by lending them money and agricultural instruments. Because of the sale and purchase of land by the zamindars, the market became quite brisk. Besides the zamindars used to sell the crops grown on their land. There are evidences that the zamindars held bazaars where even the farmers came to sell their crops.
(vii) If we observe social relations of villages of Mughal age, as a pyramid then zamindars were at the top i.e. their place was the highest.
(viii) There is no doubt in the fact that the zamindars belonged to an exploitative class. But their relations with the farmers depended on their mutual togetherness and hereditary patronage. That’s why zamindars often got support of peasants in case of their revolt against the state.
9. Assess the role played by Panchayats in the villages during Mughal period.
Or
Explain the ways through which Mughal village Panchayats and village headmen regulated rural society.
Ans: The village Panchayat was an assembly of elders or important people of the village. In villages, where people of many castes lived, the Panchayat was usually a heterogeneous body. It represented all the castes and communities. Its decisions were binding on all its members.
Role of the Headman: The Panchayat was headed by a muqaddam or mandal. He was usually called the headman and was often chosen with consensus of the village elders. He remained in the office till he enjoyed the confidence of the elders of the village. He supervised the village accounts and was assisted by a patwari or an accountant. He also coordinated activity to tide over natural calamities like floods and tried to prevent caste- based offences.
Functions of Panchayats: The main function of the Panchayat was to ensure that all communities lived within caste boundaries. Secondly, it had the authority to levy fines. Thirdly, it could also give more serious punishments like expulsion from the community. It acted as a deterrent to violation of caste norms.
Jati Panchayats: The Jati Panchayats had a considerable influence in rural society. In Rajasthan, the Jati Panchayats resolved civil disputes between members of different castes.
They also mediated in disputed cases of land. They also decided if the marriage were solemnised in accordance with the norms of particular castes. The decisions of the Jati Panchayats were even respected by the state.
Archival records of western India, especially Rajasthan and Maharashtra, include few petitions – presented to Panchayat complaining about collecting taxes forcefully or the demand of begar, i.e., unpaid labour. These petitions were generally submitted by most weaker sections of rural communities. These petitions were made collectively by a community or caste group against the morally illegitimate demands of elite groups. One of these demands was excessive taxes. They considered right of minimum basic means of life as their traditional rights. They wanted that Gram Panchayat should listen to this and must ensure that state must give them justice.
In case of demand of excessive taxes, different classes were advised by Panchayat to come to a compromise. When reconciliation was not possible, peasants took more drastic forms of resistance like deserting the village. As uncultivated land was easily available and there was competition over labour resources, it was an effective weapon in the hand of cultivators.
10. On an outline map of the world, mark the areas which had economic links with the Mughal Empire, and trace out possible routes of communication.
Ans:
Hints:
Countries: Arab countries, Iran, Afghanistan, China, Central Asia, Western Asia, Italy, Portugal, France, Britain, Holland etc. had trade links with the Mughal Empire.
Possible Routes:
(a) Sea route via Atlantic Ocean to Cape of Good Hope (South Africa), Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean.
(b) Red Sea, Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean, Bay of Bengal to China Sea.
(c) From Central Asia to Afghanistan through modern Pakistan upto Kerala or Goa by land route.
11. Visit a neighbouring village. Find out how many people live there, which crops are grown, which animals are raised, which artisanal groups reside there, whether women own land, how the local panchayat functions. Compare this information with what you have learnt about the sixteenth- seventeenth centuries, noting similarities and differences. Explain both the changes and the continuities that you find.
Ans: Self-study.
Hints: There is a village panchayat in our village. Nearly four thousand people living in about 250 houses.
Crops: Wheat, gram, peas, barley, mustard, sugarcane, rice, pulses are grown in my village.
Animals: Cow, ox, buffalo, goats, sheep, pig, horses, camels are kept by different people.
Artisanal groups: Potters, Carpenters, Blacksmith, Goldsmith, Weavers, Basketmakers, Metal workers, Architects, Painters, Dyers, Mechanic, Electrician are living.
Women landowners: Nearly two hundred women are having their land, some of them are widows, unmarried, divorcee or having transformation of landownership after the death of their parents.
Local panchayat functions: Cleanliness and disposal of dirt and wastage, lighting of roads and streets, supply of clean drinking water, primary school, primary health care centre, small hospital for animals, construction work, small parks, streets, lane, small roads, maintenance of village wells, ponds, tanks etc.
Holding animals fairs and conducting Ramlila and Krishnalila during certain months. Maintaining register of records of births and deaths, making provision for pulse-polio and other tikkakaran, library is maintain and minor criminal and civil disputes are also settled by the help of the villagers.
Similarity and differences: Some functions are done by modern village panchayat like the panchayat of sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Their is a headman and some other members of the panchayat. Modern panchayat keeps land records like the panchayat of medieval India.
Differences: In modern panchayat adult citizens of village elect their representatives. These elected for five years. Some seats are reserved for S.C./S.T., OBC and 33 per cent seat reserve for women candidates. Such reservation was not in village panchayat of sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
