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NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 2 Kings, Farmers and Towns
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Kings, Farmers and Towns
Chapter: 2
| THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY (PART – I) |
TEXTUAL QUESTIONS ANSWER
1. Discuss the evidence of craft production in early historic cities. In what ways is this different from the evidence from Harappan cities?
Ans: The towns of Harappa have been widely excavated. From excavations, we hae found evidences about the Harappan craftsmanship. Contrary to it, the excavation of the early historical towns is not possible because in these regions, people still live. Even then, we have found a wide range of artefacts. There are certainly other evidences of things produced by the craftsmen.
The craft production in early towns:
(i) From these sites, fine pottery bowls and dishes have been found. They had a glossy finish. They were known as Northern Black Polished Ware. They were probably used by the rich people.
(ii) There have been evidences of ornaments, tools, weapons, vessels and figurines. There were also a wide range of things which were made of gold, silver, copper, bronze, ivory, glass, shell and terracotta.
(iii) The donor inscriptions tell us that the washermen, weavers, scribes, carpenters, potters, goldsmiths, blacksmiths, officials and religious teachers lived in these towns. The blacksmiths made things from iron. There аrе no evidences of iron in the towns of Harappa.
(iv) The craft producers and merchants had formed their guilds or shrenis. They bought the raw material and went in for regulated production. In the end, they marketed the finished goods.
2. State any three features of Mahajanapadas. How did Mugadha become the powerful Mahajanapada? Explain.
Ans: In the early texts of Buddhism and Jainism, we find a mention of sixteen states under the name of Mahajanapadas. Though the names of all these Mahajanapadas are not uniform in these books, yet the names of Vajji, Magadha, Kaushal, Kuru, Panchal, Gandhar and others have been noted. It indicates that all these Mahajanapadas must have been very important.
Main Characteristics: The mian features of the Mahajanapadas are as follows:
(i) Most of the Mahajanapadas were ruled by a king. But a group of people ruled those states which were known as Republics. Every person of this group was called a king. Lord Mahavira and Lord Buddha had relation with this Republics. Like the Republics of Vajji, in some other states, the king nad the people had a collective control over the economic resources.
(ii) Every Mahajanapada had its own capital and was often surrounded by a fort. The fortification of the capital was needed for the maintenance of its border forces and economic resources for the officials.
(iii) Approximately in the 6th century B.C.E., the Brahmans started composing a religious book in Sanskrit called Dharamshastras. In it, the rules were determined for all social sections including the king. It was also expected that all the rulers should be Kshatriyas.
(iv) The main job of the rulers was to collect tax from the farmers, merchants and craftsmen. They also accepted offerings.
(v) It was legitimate to attack the neighbouring countries to raise money from them.
(vi) Slowly and steadily, some states started keeping their regular armed forces and other officials whereas other states were still dependent on assistant armies. The soldiers were often recruited from the farmers.
8. How do historians reconstruct the lives of ordinary people?
Ans: Common masses or ordinary people left behind very few written information about their lives. That’s why historians have to use different types of sources to reconstruct the lives of ordinary people. Following are given some of the sources:
(i) Different types of foodgrains and animal bones have been found during excavation. It gives us information about dietary practices of people.
(ii) Remains of houses and pots inform us about their daily and household life.
(iii) There is a mention of different types of crafts and craftsmen on certain inscriptions. It is a very good source of knowing economic life of people.
(iv) Some inscriptions and scriptures inform us about king-subject relations, different types of taxes and miseries or happiness of people.
(v) Changing agricultural tools and equipments throw some light on changing life of ordinary people.
(vi) Merchant guilds indicate towards protection of interests of producers.
(vii) Historians also use famous folk tales to get information about life of common masses.
4. Compare and contrast the list of things given to the Pandyan chief (Source 3) with those produced in the village of Danguna (Source 8). Do you notice any similarities or differences?
Ans: The gifts given to Pandyan Chief include the things like ivory, fragrant wood, fans made of the hair of deer, honey, sandal wood, red ochre, antimony, turmeric, cardamom, pepper etc. Except these, mangoes, coconut, medicinal plants, fruits, onions, sugarcanes, flowers, arecanut, bananas and many birds and animals were also given as gifts.
On contrary to it things produced in the village of Danguna include grass, skin of animals, charcoal, salt and other minerals, fermenting liquors, produces of khadira tree, flowers and milk.
Similarities: Except flowers, there is no similarity between both the lists. Probably Pandyan kings could have used animal skin like Danguna village.
Differences: Many differences have been found in both the lists. Main difference is the method of getting these things. People willingly and happily used to give gifts to Pandyan chies. On contrary to it before land grants, people, of Danguna village had to give these things to state and its officials because it was their duty.
5. List some of the problems faced by epigraphists.
Or
Give any two limitations of insc-riptional evidence to construct the past.
Ans: The scholars who study the inscriptions were often very wise people.
They faced the following problems:
(i) Sometimes the words are engraved in very light colours. It is very hard to decipher them.
(ii) Sometimes the inscriptions are damaged Many words are lost due to this damage.
(iii) It is always not easy to find out the real meaning of the inscription. Sometimes the things are stated in relevance to a particular situation or time.
(iv) Thousands of inscriptions have been found. But not all of them can be translated or understood.
(v) There might have been many more inscriptions. It is possible that many of them would have been damaged. These inscriptions which are available may be a part of many more which have already been damaged.
(vi) There is another basic problem. What is important today both politically and economically may not have been mentioned in the inscriptions. For example, the inscriptions donot refer to agriculture and the joys or sorrows of daily life. They describe only special and grand occasions.
(vii) The inscriptions reflect the views of those who write them. So we must critically analyse all the inscriptions to find out the ultimate truth.
6. Discuss the main features of Mauryan administration. Which of these elements are evident in the Asokan inscriptions that you have studied?
Ans: Asokan inscriptions mention all the main features of Mauryan administration like Ring-subjects relationship, political centres, important officers and their duties etc. Same sort of messages were engraved on inscriptions found in western frontier province of modern Pakistan, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Uttarakhand and other places. Some of the main features evident in the Asokan inscriptions and few others are given below:
(i) Five main Political Centres: Largest political centre of Mauryan empire was capital itself i.e., Pataliputra. Except this, there is mention of four provincial centres in Asokan inscriptions. These four centres were Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali and Suvarnagiri.
(ii) Unequal Administrative System: Mauryan empire was quite large and included areas in the empire were of different types like mountainous region of Afghanistan and coastal areas of Orissa. It was not possible to establish an equal or same administrative system in such a diverse empire. But probably strict administrative control could have been there in capital of empire and other provincial centres.
(iii) Selection of Provincial Centres: Provincial centres were selected very carefully. Taxila and Ujjayini were situated on important trading routes of long journey. Suvarnagiri was important for the gold mines of Karnataka.
(iv) Providing Easy Communication: Communication along both land and riverine routes was vital for the existence of empire. It took weeks or months to reach provinces from the capital. It is obvious that arrangement of diet and protection of people moving through the routes could have been an important issue.
(v) Committee and Sub-Committees: Megasthenes mentioned about one committee and six sub-committees for coordinating military activities.
(a) First sub-committee looked after the navy.
(b) The second managed transport and provisions.
(c) The third sub-committee was responsible for infantry.
(d) The fourth was responsible for horses, the fifth for chariots and sixth for elephants.
Activities of second sub-committee were little bit varied. It arranged for bullock carts to carry equipments, procuring fodder for animals and food for soldiers and recruiting artisans and servants to look after the soldiers.
(vi) Appointment of Dhamma Mahamatras: Asoka tried to maintain unity- in his empire. He also done this by propagating Dhamma. Concepts of Dhamma were very simple and universal. He was of the view that obeying the Dhamma will be good for people in this world and beyond this world. That’s why special officers called Dhamma Mahamatras were appointed. This activity is also mentioned in inscriptions.
7. This is a statement made by one of the best-known epigraphists of the twentieth century, D.C. Sircar: “There is no aspect of life, culture and activities of the Indians that is not reflected in inscriptions”. Discuss.
Ans: A famous exponent of inscriptions, D.C. Sircar has rightly said that the inscriptions present a glimpse of every aspect of the Indian life. Regarding it, many examples can be cited, a few of which are as follows:
(i) Determination of State Expansion: From the inscriptions, we come to know a lot about the expansion of states by the kings. The ancient kings got installed the inscriptions within the borders of their states. Hence, the areas where inscriptions were found are believed to be the part of his state.
(ii) Names of Kings: From the inscriptions, we also come to know about the names of various kings. Earlier we were unable to know these names from any other source. For example, many titles like Devanampiya (beloved of the Gods) and Piyadassi (pleasant to behold) were used for king Asoka. All these names are known from the inscriptions installed by him.
(iii) Information about Historical Events: We also know a lot about historical events from the inscriptions. All the major events in the life of Samudragupta can be known from Allahabad Prashasti. The inscriptions of Asoka throw light on the Kalinga war and its gave consequences. Similarly we know a lot about the ups and downs in the life of Chandragupta Vikramaditya, Raja Bhoj, Pulakeshin-II from various inscriptions.
(iv) Information about the Character of Kings: The inscriptions also present a glimpse about the character of the kings. They tell us that Asoka was a lover of his subjects. He did a lot for their welfare. All the inscriptions prove him to be a king, protector of animals and lover of the family system. Allahabad Prashasti presents Samudragupta as a great warrior and scholar.
(v) Information about Land Systems and Administration: There are many important inscriptions which tell us about the land donated by the kings and the samants. They provide useful information about the system and administration of land in the ancient India. Most of these inscriptions were written on copper plates. They are found in almost all the ancient languages. They give detailed information about the villages, land and revenue given to the beggars, Brahmanas, temples, jagirdars and officials.
(vi) Time Line: The inscriptions contribute a lot in determining the historical dates and periods of war. We can determine their time from the script and style of writing on the inscriptions.
(vii) Information about Historical Literature: From the language of the inscriptions we come to know about the level of literature. We also come to know in which parts of the country were spoken languages like Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit, Tamil and Telugu. The inscriptions also tell us about the status of these languages in the country.
(viii) Information about Languages and Religion: The language of the inscriptions inform us about the religions of those times. In ancient times, Sanskrit language was identified with the Hinduism. Similarly, Prakrit language was associated with Buddhism.
(ix) Information about Love for Art: The inscriptions have been prepared by engraving stones and caves, they tell us about the love for art. The inscriptions of Asoka are the model of excellence of the Mauryan period.
(x) Information about Social Classes: The inscriptions tell us a lot about the social classes of those times. We also come to know that during those times, there were not only the ruling class but also weavers, goldsmiths washermen, ironsmiths, traders and farmers.
8. Discuss the notions of kingship that developed in the post-Mauryan period.
Ans: The ideas which were developed about Kingship in the post-Mauryan period has a very distinctive feature and that was ‘Divine Theory of Kingship’. Kings started to associate themselves with Gods and Goddesses to achieve higher status. Kushana rulers, who ruled from Central Asia upto western India, used this method in better way. Kushana history was reconstructed through inscriptions and literary traditions. The notion of kingship which Kushanas wished to project is perhaps best evidenced in the coins and sculptures.
I. Kushana Rulers:
(i) Colossal statues of Kushana rulers have been found in Matt near Mathura. Some scholars are of opinion that Kushanas might have considered themselves God-like. Many Kushana rulers also adopted the title of Devaputra. They probably were inspired by Chinese rulers who called themselves as sons of heaven.
(ii) A picture of king has been shown on coins of Kushana rulers. There is a picture of a deity on other side of this coin. This type of coins were issued to express their divine status.
II. Gupta Rulers:
(i) Second development in the notion of kingship took place during the Gupta age. Many evidences of large states have been found by the 4th century including the Gupta empire. Many of these empires depended upon Samantas who were those men who maintained themselves through local resources which included control over land. Samantas respected their kings and provided military support to the rulers. Few powerful Samantas became king as weak rulers were reduced to the position of subordinates.
(ii) Literature, coins and inscriptions were used to reconstruct history of the Gupta rulers. Prashastis were used for this purpose as they were composed in praise of kings or their patrons. While historians generally try to draw facts from these compositions, those who composed and read them generally kept them as works of poets instead of accounts which are really true. For example, we can take the Prayaga Prashasti which is famous by the name of Allahabad Pillar Inscription. Its writer Harisena, described Samudragupta, his patron, as the most powerful Gupta ruler. This type of views express new ideas of kingship.
9. To what extent were agricultural practices transformed in the period under consideration?
Ans: The demand for taxes by the kings had considerably increased during the period 600 BCE to 600 A.D. To fulfil this demand for more taxes, the farmers started finding all new means to increase the production of their crops. Consequently many changes took place in the means and methods of agriculture:
(i) Prevalence of Ploughs: One method that helped increasing the production was the popularity of plough. The use of a plough had started in the 6th century BCE in the valleys of Ganga and Cauveri. The plough with an iron tip was used in areas which had an ample rainfall. It was used in fertile land. It resulted in increasing the production of paddy. No doubt the farmers had to work a lot to achieve this target.
(ii) Use of Spade: Though plough helped in increasing the production yet its use was limited to only some areas. In Punjab and Rajasthan, which has less rainfall, the plough was used in the early period of the 20th century. Those farmers who lived in the north-east and mid-mountainous regions, used spade to dig fields. The spade was quite useful in such areas.
(iii) Artificial Irrigation: Another method to increase the production was artificial irrigation. For this purpose, the wells, the tanks and the canals were used. These were developed by the people individually. At some places, the farmers, also joined hands and worked collectively to develop these means of irrigation. However the kings and other dominating elite people developed wells, ponds and canals individually for irrigation of land.
Impact of new Methods of Agriculture: The production in the fields increased considerably because of these modern techniques but many differences also emerged among the people because of these new methods. In Buddhist stories, we find a mention of labourers, small farmers and big zamindars. It shows diverse social classes and the postition of different people in the society. In Pali language, the word for small farmers and zamindars was ‘Grihapati’. The big zamindars and village chiefs were considered very powerful and strong. They often had a control over small farmers. The post of village chief was often hereditary.
The texts of Tamil Sangam also mention different classes of people in the villages. For example, there were Vellalars or big landlords, Halwaha or Ulwar and Das Animai. It is possible that these diverse positions were because of differences in the ownership of land, labour and new technology. In such a situation, the ownership of land became quite important.
