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NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 6 Bhakti-Sufi Traditions
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Bhakti-Sufi Traditions
Chapter: 6
| THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY (PART – II) |
TEXTUAL QUESTIONS ANSWER
1. Explain with examples what historians mean by the integration of cults.
Ans: Many historians have tried to understand the integration of cults. They found that there were at least two processes at work. First of all, there was a process of disseminating Brahmanical ideas. For example, all the Puranic texts were composed, compiled and preserved in simple Sanskrit verse. It was done so that they may be accessible to all women and the Shudras who were generally excluded from Vedic learning. Secondly, the Brahmans accepted and reworked the beliefs and practices of these and other social categories. They were engaged in a continuous dialogue between great Sanskritic Puranic traditions and little traditions throughout the land. For example, at Puri in Orissa, the principal deity of Vishnu was identified as Jagannatha which meant ‘Lord of the World’. The terms of great and little traditions were coined by Robert Redfield, a sociologist of the 20th century.
Such example of integration can also be seen in the cults of goddesses. The goddess was often worshipped in the form of a stone smeared with ochre. These local deities were usually incorporated within the Puranic framework by providing them with an identity as a wife of the principal male deities. For example, Lakshmi is associated with Vishnu as his wife and Parvati with Shiva as his wife.
2. To what extent do you think the architecture of mosques in the subcontinent reflects a combination of universal ideals and local traditions?
Ans: The Muslim rulers in the sub-continent got many mosques built. Their architecture was a complex blend of a universal faith and local traditions. Most of the features of these mosques are universal. The had a special orientation towards Mecca. It was evident from the placement of the mihrab (prayer niche) and the minbar (pulpit). But there were also many variations in the architecture. These variations can be seen in the roofs and the building materials. For example, a mosque was built in Kerala in the 13th century. Its roof resembled il the Shikhar of the temple. Contrary to it, the roof of Atia Mosque in Bangladesh is round. The Atia Mosque was bricks. However the Kash the wood has been used in Shah Hamdan Mosque built in Srinagar on the banks of Jhelum river.
3. Point out one difference and one similarity between be-sharia and ba-sharia Sufi traditions.
Ans: There was some mystics in the Islam religion. They gave radical interpretation of the Sufi ideals. Many of them hated the Khanqah. They took to mendicancy and observed celibacy. They ignored rituals and adopted asceticism in their lives. They were known by different names such as Qulandars, Madaris, Malangi and Haidaris. They deliberately defined the sharia. So they were often called as be-sharia. On the other hand, the ra-sharia Sufis were those Sufis who complied with the ideas of Islam. However, both kinds of people belonged to Islam.
4. Discuss the ways in which the Alvars, Nayanars and Virashaivas expressed critiques of the caste system.
Ans: Meaning of Alvars and Nayanars: Some of the earliest Bhati movements (C. sixth century) were led by Alvars (literally meaning of this word is those who are emerged in devotion to Vishnu) and Nayanars (literally meaning of this word is those leaders who were devotees of lord Shiva). The Alvars and Nayanars travelled place to place singing hymns in Tamil (in praise of their god).
Attitude of Alvars and Nayanars towards caste system: Some historians suggest that the Alvars and Nayanars initiated a movement of protest against the caste system – and the dominance of Brahmanas or at least attempted to reform the system. To some extent this is corroborated by the fact that bhaktas hailed from diverse social backgrounds ranging from Brahmanas to artisans and cultivators and even from castes considered “untouchable”.
Meaning of Virashaiva: The twelfth century witnessed the emergence of a new movement in Karnataka, led by a Brahmana named Basavanna (1106-68) who was initially a Jaina and a minister in the court of a Chalukya king. His followers were known as Virashaivas (heroes of Shiva) or Lingayats (wearers of the linga).
Attitude of Virashaivas towards caste system: The Lingayats challenged the idea of caste and the “pollution” attributed to certain groups by Brahmanas. They also questioned the theory of rebirth. These won them followers amongst those who were marginalised within the Brahmanical social order. The Lingayats also encouraged certain practices disapproved in the Dharmashastras, such as post-puberty marriage and the remarriage of widows.
5. Describe the major teachings of either Kabir or Baba Guru Nanak, and the ways in which these have been transmitted.
Ans: Kabir had an important place in the poet-saints. His teachings are as follows:
(i) He described the ultimate reality as Allah, Khuda, Hazrat and Pir. He also used terms like alakh (the unseen) and nirakar (the formless). These words were drawn from Vedantic traditions.
(ii) He repudiated idol-worship and polytheism.
(iii) He emphasised the Sufi concept of zikr and ishq (love) to express the Hindu practices of nam-simaran (remembrance of God’s name).
(iv) He believed that God was one though his names are different.
(v) He referred to God as formless. (vi) He stated that salvation can be attained through Bhakti.
6. Describe briefly the message and teachings of Baba Guru Nanak.
Ans: Guru Nanak Dev Ji and his teachings: Baba Guru Nanak was born in 1469, at Nankana Sahib near the river Ravi. This place is now in Pakistan. He was born in a Hindu family. He learnt Persian, Arabic, Hindi and Mathematics. He travelled widely. he spent most of his time in the company of Sufi saints Bhaktas.
His main teachings are as follows:
(i) He advocated nirguna bhakti. He firmly repuduated and rejected the religius practices like sacrifices, ritual baths, idol worship and austerities.
(ii) He rejected the scriptures of both Hindus and Muslims.
(iii) He stated that the Almighty or rub had no gender or form.
(iv) He proposed that all his followers should connect to the Divine by remembering and repeating the Divine name.
In fact, Guru Nanak Dev expressed his ideas througth hymns called “shabads”. He expressed all his views in Punjabi, the language of the region. He recited his “shabads” in various ragas.
7. Discuss the major beliefs and practices that characterised Sufism.
Ans: In the early centuries of Islam, a group of religious minded people turned to asceticism and mysticism. They were called as Sufis.
Major beliefs and practices of Sufism are given below:
(i) Sufis criticised the dogmatic definitions and scholistic methods of interpreting the Quran and Sunna (traditions of the Prophet) given by theologians. Sufis thus interpreted the Quran on the basis of their personal experiences.
(ii) They gave emphasis on seeking salvation through great devotion and bhakti of God.
(iii) They regarded Prophet Muhammad as a perfect human being and preached to follow the Prophet Muhammad.
(iv) They were in favour of zikr, sama, singing, dance and training of mind, through different methods under the guidance of any Auliya or Pir.
(v) They gave stress on mendicancy and celibacy. They ignored rituals and observed extreme forms of asceticism.
(vi) They used to go for ziyarat, to tombs of Sufi saints. Music and dance were also parts of ziyarat. The Sufis remember God either by reciting the Divine Names or evoking his presence through sama or performance of mystical music. Sama was integral to the Chishtis, and exemplified interaction with indigenous devotional traditions.
(vii) According to Sufis God is one and is all. powerful. Every one is his creation. That’s why all are equal.
(viii) According to Sufism service of mankind and needy people is as equal to the devotion of God. That’s why a common kitchen (langar) was being run in Khanqah of Shaikh Nizamuddin Aulia which was being run on ‘futuh’ (unasked for charity). From morning till late night this kitchen was being run to provide food for all sections of society.
(ix) A major feature of Sufism was austerity including maintaining a distance from worldly power.
8. Examine how and why rulers tried to establish connections with the traditions of the Nayanars and the Sufis.
Ans: Nayanar and Alwar saints had a lot of respect among Vellal peasants. So many rulers tried to get their support. For example, the Chola kings got magnificent temples built to seek divine support. Many stone and metal statues or idols adorned these temples. They gave a concrete shape to the imagery of saint-poets who composed hymns in the language of the common people. The Chola rulers also started the singing of Shiva hymns in the Tamil language. They also took the responsibility of compiling a new book of bhakti songs. An inscription of 945 C.E. tells us that Chola King Parantak-I got built metalled status of saint-poet Appa Sambandar and Sundarar in the Shiva Temple. These idols were shown to the people during processions.
(i) Sultan: The Sultans knew that most of his people belonged to Islam. So when the Turks established the Delhi Sultanate, they rejected the demand of Ulma to introduce Shariat. They did so to avoid any kind of opposition from their people who were mainly mon-Muslims. So they took the help of Sufi saints who considered their spiritual authority as the blessing of God. They were not dependent on the explanation of Shariat by Ulma.
Some people believed that the Auliya could intercede on behalf of God in order to improve the material and spiritual conditions of the common people. That is why, the kings often wanted to have their tombs in the vicinity of the Sufi shrines. They used to visit the dargahs of Sufi saints. The king who first visited the dargah of Shaikh Muin-ud-din Chishti at Ajmer was Sultan Muhammad- bin-Tughlaq (1324-51). However, the first monument on tomb of Shaikh was built by King Ghiyas-ud-din Khilji in the fifteenth century. As the dargha was on the road that linked Delhi with Gujarat. it was visited by many travellers.
(ii) Sufi Saints and Mughal Emperor Akbar: This dargah at Ajmer had become quite popular in the 16th century. The devotional hymns of those travellers who visited the dargah over the years inspired Emperor Akbar to visit this shrine. Akbar came to the dargah fourteen times. Sometimes he visited this place twice or thrice a year. Sometimes he visited this dargah to seek blessings for new victory and sometimes he came to seek the fulfilment of his desires. He also visited this holy place on the birthday of his son. Akbar kept this tradition till 1580. He donated a lot on all such occasions. For example in 1568, he donated a big cauldron (degh) so that food may be prepared for all the pilgrims. He also got built a mosque in the compound of the dargah.
9. Analyse, with illustrations, why Bhakti and Sufi thinkers adopted a variety of languages in which to express their opinions.
Ans: The Bhakti and Sufi thinkers used the languages of the common people to express their opinions. They often spoken in local languages which was well-understood by the common people. Had they used a few distinct languages, they would not have reached to all the people and would have gone extinct. Hence, their use of the local languages proved very significant.
(i) The Alvars and the Nayanars made use of the Tamil language.
(ii) Bhakat Kabir wrote his poems mostly in saint language which was the distinct language of the Nirguna poets.
(iii) The Sufi saints also used the local languages. For example, Baba Farid used the Punjabi language.
(iv) Guru Nanak Dev Ji also preached in Punjabi language.
(v) The Chishtis also adopted the local languages. They conversed in Hindavi, the language of the common people.
(vi) This poets of Bijapur and Karnataka wrote short poems in Dakhani, a variant of Urdu.
10. Read any five of the sources included in this chapter and discuss the social and religious ideas that are expressed in them.
Ans: (i) The Chaturvedi Brahmanas were well versed in the four Vedas. They did not keep a devotion of service towards Lord Vishnu. That is why Lord Vishnu loved those servants who expressed their love for their feet.
(ii) Servants or Dasa were not included in the Varma System.
(iii) Brahmanas used to pour milk on a serpent carved in stone. But if a real serpent came they tried to kill his. This thing was also evident in serving food. They used to offer dishes of food to the images of God which cannot eat but they clearly denied to give food to the servant of God who could eat.
(iv) Mughal rulers, especially Akbar, used to respect all the religions and used to protect and patronage them, People of all the religions were allowed to construct their places of worship. Aurangzeb also used to help religious teachers of different sects.
11. On an outline map of India, plot three major sufi shrines, and three places associated with temples (one each of a form of Vishnu, Shiva and the goddess of.
Ans:
