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NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 9 Kings and Chronicles The Mughal Courts
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Kings and Chronicles The Mughal Courts
Chapter: 9
| THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY (PART – II) |
TEXTUAL QUESTIONS ANSWER
1. Describe the process of manuscript production in the Mughal court.
Or
Describe briefly the various talks involved in creating manuscript during Mughal Empire.
Ans: All the Mughal books were manuscripts. In other words, they were hand- written. The centre where the work of manuscript production was taken was known as the imperial kitabkhana. This Kitabkhana was like a library. It was a scriptorium. In other words, it was a place where the emperor kept his collection of manuscripts and produced new manuscripts.
A large number of people were involved in the creation of manuscript.
They included the following:
(i) Paper makers who prepared the folios of the manuscript.
(ii) Scribes or calligraphers who copied the texts.
(iii) Guilders who illuminated the pages of the manuscript.
(iv) Painters who illustrated scenes from the text.
(v) Book binders who gathered the individual folios and set them within ornamental covers.
In the end, all these manuscripts were considered very precious and invaluable. They were a work of beauty and intellectual wealth.
2. In what ways would the daily routine and special festivities associated with the Mughal court have conveyed a sense of the power of the emperor?
Ans: In the Mughal court, king was always the centre of all attractions during the daily routine and special activities. Every activity or festivity exposed the power of the king.
The following examples can be cited in this regard:
(i) Discipline in the Court: There were precise rules to determine the status amongst the Mughal elites. The elites having proximity to the king were accorded an important place in the court. There was a perfect discipline in the court. Once the emperor sat on the throne, one was allowed to move from his seat. Beside no one could leave the court without permission.
(ii) Forms of Address and Courtesies: All had to follow norms in the court. They had to follow the norms of address, courtesies and speech which were acceptable in court. Even a slightest deviation in etiquettes fetched punishment on the spot.
(iii) The Forms of Salutation: There were many forms of salutation in the court. They indicated the status of the person in the hierarchy. The deeper prostration represented higher status. The complete prostration or sijda meant the highest form of submission. However under the reign of Shah Jahan, these rituals were replaced with Chahar Taslim and Zaminbos ie. kissing the ground.
(iv) Jharoka Darshan: The Jharoka Darshan was introduced by Akbar. He wanted to broaden the popular faith in the imperial authority. After performing his devotional prayers, he would go to a small balcony facing the east. The crowd of people comprising of soldiers, merchants, peasants, craft persons and women had the view of the emperor. It was called the Jharoka Darshan.
3. Assess the role played by women of the imperial household in the Mughal Empire.
Or
Examine the complex institution of the Imperial Household of the Mughal empire.
Ans: The domestic world of the Mughals was termed as the harem’. The origin of the word ‘harem’ lay in the Persian language where it meant a sacred place.
The Mughal household consisted of the following:
(i) Wives and concubines of the emperor.
(ii) The near and distant relatives of the emperor such as mother, step-mothers, father- mothers, sisters, daughters, daughters-in-law, aunts and children.
(iii) Slaves and female servants.
Two Kinds of Wives: The Mughal rulers had two kinds of wives such as Begums and Aghas. The Begums came from royal and aristocratic families. On the other hand, Aghas were those wives who were not noble by birth. The Begums enjoyed a higher status than the Aghas.
Control Over Financial Resources and Architectural Projects: The Mughal queens and princesses exercised a significant control over financial resources. Jahanara and Roshanara, the two daughters of Shah Jahan, earned an annual income equal to that of mansabdars. Jahanara also got revenues from the port city of Surat, a famous centre of overseas trade. They also designed many architectural projects. For example, Jahanara designed the bazaar of Chandni Chowk in Delhi. She also designed an imposing double storeyed caravan serai with a courtyard and a garden.
Contribution in Writing of History: Gulbadan Begum, the daughter of Babur, wrote a book entitled ‘Humayunama’. It gives a glimpse into the domestic world of the Mughals. Gulbadan Begum also wrote her memories of earlier times under Babur and Humayun. She described various conflicts and tensions that prevailed in the Mughals household.
Role of Elderly Women: They played the role of mediation. They resolved the conflicts that existed between Princes and the Kings.
4. What were the concerns that shaped Mughal policies and attitudes towards regions outside the subcontinent?
Ans. 1. Iran and Turan: The political and diplomatic relations between the Mughal kings and the neighbouring countries of Iran and Turan hinged on the control of the frontier defired by the Hindukush mountains that separated Afghanistan from the regions of Iran and Central Asia.
2. To control strategic out-posts (such on Kabul and Qandhar): All conquerors who sought to make their way into the Indian subcontinent had to cross the Hindukush to have access to north India. A constant aim of Mughal policy was to ward off this potential danger by controlling strategic outposts-notably Kabul and Qandhar.
3. Qandhar as a bone of contention between the Safavids and the Mughals:
Qandhar was a bone of contention between the Safavids and the Mughals.
The fortress-town had – initially been in the possession of Humayun, reconquered in 1595 by Akbar. While the Safavid court retained diplomatic relations with the Mughals, it continued to stake claims to Qandhar. In 1613 Jahangir sent a diplomatic envoy to the court of Shah Abbas to plead the Mughal case for retaining Qandhar, but the mission failed. In the winter of 1622 a Persian army besieged Qandhar. The ill-prepared Mughal garrison was defeated and had to surrender the fortress and the city to the Safavids.
4. To have facilities of free movement for Muslim pilgrims and relation with Ottomans: The relationship between the Mughals and the Ottomans was marked by the concern to ensure free movement for pilgrims in the territories under Ottoman control. This was especially true for the Hijaz, that part of Ottoman Arabia where the important pilgrim centres of Mecca and Medina were located.
5. Mughals and Ottomans and Trade (commerce etc.): The Mughal emperors usually combined religion and commerce by exporting valuable merchandise to Aden and Mokha, both Red Sea ports, and distributing the proceeds of the sales in charity to the keepers of shrines and religious men there. However, when Aurangzeb discovered cases of misappropriation of funds sent to Arabia, he favoured their distribution in India which, he thought, “was as much a house of God as Mecca”.
5. Discuss the major features of Mughal provincial administration. How did the centre control the provinces?
Ans: The Mughal state had provinces which were called the Subas. These Subas looked after by Diwan, Bakhshi and Sadar. The head of the provincial government was the Governor (Subedar) who reported directly to the emperor. Each Suba was divided into various sarkars. Then there were districts which were looked after by faujdars. Then there was pargana, that is, sub-district. It had three semi-hereditary. officers such as the qanungo (keeper of the revenue records), the chaudhari (incharge of revenue collection) and the Qazi. Each, department of administration had a large number of clerks, accountants, auditors and messengers. Besides there were technically qualified officers who functioned in accordance with fixed rules and procedures.
6. Discuss, with examples, the distinctive features of Mughal chronicles.
Or
Describe the characteristic features of Mughal Chronicles.
Ans: The features of Mughal chronicles: (i) The Mughal rulers believed in Divine theory of Kingship. They tried to convey this theory and vision through the writing of dynastic history. For this purpose they appoint court- historians to write accounts. These accounts recorded the events of the emperor’s time. In addition, their writers collected vast amounts of information from the regions of the subcontinent to help the rulers govern their domain.
(ii) Modern historians’ writings in English have termed this genre of texts chronicles, as they present a continuous chronological record of events.
(iii) Chronicles are an indispensable sources for any scholar wishing to write a history of the Mughals. At one level they were a repository of factual information about the institutions of the Mughal state, painstakingly collected and classified by individuals closely connected with the court.
At the same time these texts were intended as conveyors of meanings that the Mughal rulers sought to impose on their domain. They therefore give us a glimpse into how imperial ideologies were created and disseminated.
(iv) Chronicles commissioned by the Mughal emperors are an important source for studying the empire and its court. They were written in order to project a vision of an enlightened kingdom to all those who came under its umbrella. At the same time they were meant to convey to those who resisted the rule of the Mughals that all resistance was destined to fail. Also, the rulers wanted to ensure that there was an account of their rule for posterity.
7. To what extent do you think the visual material presented in this chapter corresponds with Abul Fazl’s description of the taswir (Source 1)?
Ans:
Visual material presented in this chapter are coloured paintings. Few buildings like Buland Darwaza are shown. This visual material corresponds quite a lot with Abul Fazl’s description of the taswir.
(i) This picture is the proper presentation of the things shown in the picture.
(ii) These express great interest of the Mughal rulers for paintings and architecture. They made every possible effort to encourage this art and even established royal art room for this purpose.
(iii) After looking at the given pictures we can say that most proficient artists were available in that age. Their creations could be kept in front of great creations of European artists who achieved popularity in whole of the world.
(iv) Abul Fazl described painting as a magical art and these pictures look like that they had the power to make inanimate objects look as if they possessed life.
8. What were the distinctive features of the Mughal nobility? How was their relationship with the emperor shaped?
Ans: According to the Mughal chronicles. more particularly the Akbarnama, the power to rule and govern solely rested with the emperor All the people of the kingdom followed the orders of the king. However there were a lot of officers in the Mughal state. They were the pillars of the kingdom The historians have collectively referred to them as the nobility.
Functions of Nobility: The nobility con sisted of diverse ethnic and religious groups. They did not allow any one or any faction to chal. lenge the authority of the State. They were like a bouquet of flowers held together by loyalty to the emperor. There were many Turani and Ira- nian nobles in the imperial service of Akbar.
They performed the following functions:
(i) They participated in military campaigns with their armies.
(ii) They served as officers of the empire in the provinces.
(iii) Each military commander recruited, equipped and trained the cavalry of the Mughal army.
(iv) The troopers maintained superior horses.
Recruitment: The nobility rendered the imperial service. In this way, it acquired not only power but also wealth and the highest possible reputation. If a person wished to join this ser- vice, he petitioned through a noble. The noble presented a proposal (tajwiz) to the emperor in this regard. If the candidate was found suitable, he was granted a mansab. The Mir Bakshi (pay- master general) stood by the right side of the emperor in an open court. He presented appoint- ment or promotion to all the candidates.
Advisory Body of Important Ministers: In the Mughal Court, two ministers were very important. The first was the Diwan-i-Ala (finance minister). The second was the Sadr-us-Sudur (minister of grants or Madad-i-maash). He was also the incharge of appointing local judges or qazis. These three ministers never sat together as an advisory body. The Mir Bakshi, the Diwan- i-Ala and Sadr-us-Sudur were independent of each other. However they advised Akbar in all the fiscal and monetary matters and helped him in shaping his administrative institutions.
Reserve Nobles: A few nobles remained stationed at the court. They were called Tainat- i-rakab. They served as a reserve force to be sent to a province or military campaign. They were duty bound to appear before the emperor twice a day daily. Both in the morning and evening, they had to express submission and loyalty to the emperor in the public audience hall. They guarded the emperor and his house-hold round the clock.’
Relationship with the Emperor: The nobility was very loyal to the emperor. It was also very obedient and submissive. It served as officers of the empire. The emperor personally reviewed changes in their rank, titles and offi- cial postings. Akbar himself 1 designed the mansab system. He also established spiritual relationships with a selected band of his nobility. He treated them as if they were his disciples (murid).
9. Identify the elements that went into the making of the Mughal ideal of kingship.
Ans: There were many elements that led to the formation of the Mughal period as an ideal of kingship:
(i) King as symbol of the Divine Power: According to many chronicles, the Mughal rulers derived their power directly from God. They were on the top of the list of those who received the light emanating from God (farr-i-izadi). The transmission of the Divine Light to the king made them the source of spiritual guidance for their subjects.
(ii) Sulh-i-Kul: The source of a unifying force: The Mughal Empire comprised of many religious communities such as the Hindus, the Jainas, the Zoroastrians and the Muslims. However the Mughal kings stood above all religious and ethnic groups. They mediated between people belonging to the different religious communities to ensure peace, stability and justice. According to Abul Fazl, the ideal of Sulh-i-kul was the cornerstone of enlightened rule and absolute peace. Nobody was permitted to undermine the authority of the state. Similarly all were exhorted not to fight with each other. In fact, the Mughal rulers instructed all their officers to follow the ideal of Sulh-i-kul in administration.
(iii) Just sovereignty as social contract: Abul Fazl defined sovereignty as a social contract. In other words, the emperor protected the following four essences of his subjects:
(a) Life (jan).
(b) Property (mal).
(c) Honour (namus).
(d) Faith (din).
In lieu of this protection, people expressed their obedience and submission to the kings. They also contributed their share of resources. As the sovereigns were just, they honoured the contract with power and divine guidance. That is why, many symbols were used by the artists.
There was a popular motif of the lion and the lamb. Both lived peacefully in the company of each other. It signified that the Mughal reign was a realm of peace and justice where both the strong and the weak could exist in harmony.
10. On an outline map of the world, plot. The areas with which the Mughals had political and cultural relations.
Ans:
Show Iran and Ottoman Empire in the outline map of world. For cultural relations show Mecca, Medina or Arab countries as well as countries of Central Asia.
11. Find out more about any one Mughal chronicle. Prepare a report describing the author, and the language, style and content of the text. Describe at least two visuals used to illustrate the chronicle of your choice, focusing on the symbols used to indicate the power of the emperor.
Ans: (i) Abul Fazl was the most important author of the Akbar reign. He wrote Akbar-nama. Abul Fazl grew up in the Mughal capital of Agra He was widely read in Arabic, Persian, Greek philosophy and Sufism. Moreover, he was a forceful debater and independent thinker who consistently opposed the views of the conservative ulemas. These qualities impressed Akbar, who found Abul Fazl ideally suited as an adviser and a spokesperson for his policies.
(ii) One major objective of the emperor was to free the state from the control of religious orthodoxy. In his role as court historian, Abul Fazl both shaped and articulated the ideas associated with the reign of Akbar. The book is divided into three portions.
(a) The first volume of Akbarnama begins with birth of Akbar and with the date 15 Sept. 1542. In this portion the author has mention about the composition of the earth and thought of different religious people.
(b) In the second volume of the book the event of the Akbar’s life upto 46 years of his life have been described.
(c) The third volume of Akbarnama is called Ain-i-Akbari (Ain-i Shorat). Language: Language of this book is Persian. It is very simple but it has been written in very effective manner.
Two visual examples described by the author:
(i) The flight of the written word: In Abul Fazl’s words: The written word may embody the wisdom of by gone ages and may become a means to intellectual progress. The spoken word goes to the heart of those who are present to hear it. The written work gives wisdom to those who are near and far. If it was not for the written word, the spoken word would soon die, and no keepsake would be left us from those who are passed away. Superficial observers see in the letter a dark figure, but the deep sighted see in it a lamp of wisdom (chirag-i shinasai). The written word looks black, not with standing the the thousand rays within, it, or it is a light with a mole on that wards off the evil eye. A letter (khat) is the portrait of wisdom, a rough sketch from the realm of ideas, a dark light ushering in day.
(ii) Darbar-i-Akbari: Abul Fazl gives a vivid account of Akbar’s darbar: Whenever His Majesty (Akbar) holds court (darbar) a large drum is beaten, the sounds of which are accompanied by divine praise. In this manner, people of all classes receive notice. His Majesty’s sons and grandchildren, the grandees of the court, and all other men who have admittance, attend to make the kornish, and remain standing in their proper places. During the whole time, skilful gladiators and wrestlers from all countries hold themselves in readiness, and singers, male and female, are in waiting. Clever jugglers and funny tumblers also are anxious to exhibit their dexterity and agility.
