NCERT Class 11 Knowledge Traditions and Practices of India Chapter 2 Indian Philosophical Systems

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NCERT Class 11 Knowledge Traditions and Practices of India Chapter 2 Indian Philosophical Systems

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Indian Philosophical Systems

Chapter: 2

1. Answer in one sentence.

(a) Name any three orthodox schools of Indian philosophy.

Ans: Three orthodox school of india philosophy are mentioned below: 

(i) Nyaya.

(ii) Sankhya.

(iii) Yoga.

(b) Who is the propounder of Advaita Vedānta?

Ans: Adi Shankara is the propounder of Advaita Vedānta.

(c) What is the meaning of Darśana?

Ans: A darshana literally means a ‘glimpse’ or ‘view’. In a Hindu temple, the term refers to viewing the garbhagriha ‘inner sanctum’ of the temple, which hosts the murti ‘image of a god’. Devotees taking darshana of the god Vishnu in the inner sanctum of the Chennakeshava Temple, Belur.

(d) Name any five major Pramāṇas of Indian philosophy.

Ans: Five major Pramāṇas of Indian philosophy are mentioned below: 

(i) Pratyakṣa (perception).

(ii) Anumāṇa (inference).

(iii) Śabda (word, testimony).

(iv) Upamāṇa (comparison, analogy).

(v) Arthapatti (postulation, presumption).

(e) Who is the author of Tattvārthādhigama Sūtra?

Ans: Acharya Umaswam is the author of Tattvārthādhigama Sūtra.

2. Write answers briefly.

(i) What do you mean by Indian philosophy?

Ans: Indian philosophies share many concepts such as dharma, karma, samsara, dukkha, renunciation, meditation, with almost all of them focusing on the ultimate goal of liberation of the individual from dukkha and samsara through diverse range of spiritual practices (moksha, nirvana).

(ii) Define Mokṣa according to Jaina philosophy?

Ans: In Jainism, Mokṣa, or liberation, is the ultimate spiritual goal achievable through shedding karma and achieving a state of absolute purity and detachment. It signifies liberation from the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (samsara). According to Jain philosophy, Mokṣa is attained through the eradication of all karmic bonds, which bind the soul (jiva) to worldly existence. It involves the realisation of one’s true self, characterised by infinite knowledge perception (darshana), bliss (sukha), and eternal existence in a state of complete detachment from all material desires and attachments. Achieving Mokṣa is considered the highest spiritual achievement and the ultimate state of spiritual liberation in Jain thought.

(iii) Explain the belief of Mimāṁsā.

Ans: The philosophical system of Pūrva Mimāṁsā was founded by Jaimini. Mi – māṁsā believes firmly in the performance of rituals and supports the view that the body is perishable but the soul survives even after the death and it reserves the right to enjoy the results of the rituals in heaven. The school firmly believes in the preservation of the effect or the fruits of the rituals by a remarkable power. It believes that the Vedas are impeccable in what they say. It does not talk about the Brahman or the ‘Supreme Entity’ but says that the world is real. Mimamsa strictly is of the opinion that whatever we do in our life are not dreams or illusion but are real. Jaimini accepts the two types of knowledge, namely, Pratyakṣa (immediate knowledge) and Parokṣa (mediate knowledge). Source of Parokṣa Jñāna is of five kinds, namely Anumāna (inference), Upamāna (comparison), Śabda (verbal testimony), Arthāpatti (postulation) and Anupalabdhi (nonperception). 

Jaimini accepts the plurality of soul. He says that the souls are eternal but they definitely undergo transmigration as per the actions performed by the bodies. Liberation is considered to be the highest good for humanity. Liberation puts an end to the transmigration of the soul. Performance of the daily duties brings about liberation. On the other hand the non-performance of actions or daily duties causes disruption in the path of liberation. 

(iv) What is the aim of Viśiṣṭādvaita?

Ans: Viśiṣṭādvaita Vedanta, founded by Ramanujacharya, aims to articulate a philosophy that reconciles the principles of unity and plurality within the context of Vedantic thought. Central to its teachings is the concept of Brahman, the ultimate reality, which is characterised not only by its featureless essence but also by its attributes (viśeṣas). This school asserts that the relationship between Brahman and the individual soul (jīva) is one of inseparable unity-in-diversity, where individual souls are qualitatively the same as Brahman yet maintain their distinct identities. Viśiṣṭādvaita emphasises devotion (bhakti) as the path to moksha (liberation), teaching that loving devotion to God (often Vishnu or Narayana) leads to union with Brahman. It offers a nuanced interpretation of Vedantic texts, such as the Upanishads and the Brahma Sutras, emphasising qualified non-dualism (viśiṣṭādvaita) as distinct from strict non-dualism (advaita) and dualism. Thus, Viśiṣṭādvaita Vedanta provides a comprehensive philosophical framework that integrates theistic devotion with Vedantic principles, aiming to illuminate the nature of existence and the path to spiritual realisation.

(v) Write any major characteristic of Indian philosophy.

Ans: Major characteristic of Indian Philosophy are mentioned below:

(a) Indian philosophy is usually spiritual in its nature.

(b) Indian philosophy is emanated from the experience of Sufferings.

(c) Religion and philosophy are intertwined and sometimes they are inseparable.

(d) It is a complete and comprehensive system.

(e) It usually believes in the doctrine of karma and rebirth.

(f) It is not person-centric, but a tradition-oriented system.

(g) Liberation is the summum bonum of Indian philosophical Tradition.

(h) Ignorance is the root cause of suffering.

(i) The practical aspect of the Yoga philosophy is acceptable to all the schools.

3. Write short notes on the following.

(a) Aṣṭāṅga Yoga.

Ans: Aṣṭāṅga Yoga aims at the final state of spiritual absorption through eight folds, the eight limbs of Yoga. These aṅgas are Yama, Niyama, Āsana, Prāṇāyāma, Pratyāhāra, Dhāraṇā, Dhyāna and Samādhi. Yama aims at internal purification, Niyāma aims at external purity. Āsana consists of the performance of the postures of Yoga, Prāṇāyāma is breath control, Pratyāhāra results from the withdrawal of sense organs from the corresponding sense objects, Dhāraṇā is concentration, Dhyāna is meditation and Samādhi is the final state of spiritual absorption. These eight limbs of Yoga can be divided into three sets. Initial two are moral disciplines, middle three are external disciplines and the last three are internal disciplines. The Yoga system accepts three fundamental realities, namely, Īśvara, Puruṣa and Prakṛti or the primordial matter. Patañjali says that scriptures are the sources of the existence of Īśvara. Īśvara is omniscient and is free from the qualities inherent in Prakṛti. Patanjali defines Yoga as ‘Chitta-vṛtti-nirodha’, i.e., Yoga is the restraint of the mental operations. Patañjali names some obstacles to the path of Yoga. They are called ‘Antarāyas’ and they include Vyādhi (illness), styāna (apathy), Saṁśaya (doubt), Pramāda (inadvertence), Ālasya (laziness), Avirati (incontinence), Bhrāntidarśana (wrong understanding), Alabdha Bhūmikatva (non-attainment of mental plane) and Anavasthitatva (instability). In addition to the obstacles mentioned above, Patañjali accepts five more obstacles called Duhkha (pain), Daurmanasya (frustration), Aṅgamejayatva (fickle limbs), Śvāsa (spasmodic breathing in) and Praśvāsa (spasmodic breathing out).

(b) Pañcaśi.

Ans: “Pañcaśi” refers to a concept involving a collection of five principles or teachings that hold significance across various Indian philosophical and spiritual traditions. One notable usage is in Buddhism, where it denotes the “Pañcaśilā” or Five Precepts, foundational ethical guidelines observed by lay practitioners to abstain from killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, false speech, and intoxicants. In Vedantic philosophy, “Pañcakosha” represents the idea of five sheaths or layers that encapsulate the human being, ranging from the physical body (annamaya kosha) to the blissful sheath (anandamaya kosha), illustrating the journey towards understanding the self and its relation to higher consciousness. Additionally, Vedic rituals incorporate “Pañcāgni Vidya,” the knowledge concerning five fires symbolising cosmic elements and sacrifice, while Hinduism emphasises “Pañcamahāyajña,” the five great sacrifices performed daily by householders to honour gods, ancestors, guests, humanity, and nature. This multifaceted term underscores the depth and diversity of Indian philosophical thought, encompassing ethical codes, metaphysical concepts, ritual practices, and spiritual aspirations aimed at guiding individuals towards moral living, self-realisation, and cosmic harmony.

(c) Puruṣa of Sāṅkhya.

Ans: Sāṁkhya The Sāṅkhya or Sāṁkhya philosophy enjoys a unique and prime position in the history of evolution and development of almost all the philosophical trends in India. Maharṣi Kapila is unanimously regarded as the founder of Sāṅkhya system. He is traditionally believed to be the composer of sūtras of Sāṅkhya based upon which the system was built up. However, most of the modern scholars believe that the original Sāṅkhya sūtras have been lost and the sūtras that are available by the name of it were composed very late, i.e., in the fifteenth century. After Kapila, the tradition is subsequently taken further by the writings of the scholars like Āsuri, Pañcaśikhā, Īśvara Kṛṣṇa, etc., Among them Īśvara kṛṣṇa is the most famous exponent of the system, whose Sāṅkhya kārikā is the first available textbook to present the philosophy of Sāṅkhya in an orderly and systematic way. Kṛṣṇa, etc., Among them Īśvara kṛṣṇa is the most famous exponent of the system, whose Sāṅkhya kārikā is the first available textbook to present the philosophy of Sāṅkhya in an orderly and systematic way.

(d) Padārtha in Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika system.

Ans: In the Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika system, padārtha refers to the fundamental categories that collectively constitute reality. These categories include dravya (substance), which encompasses the basic entities like earth, water, and space; guṇa (quality), which denotes attributes such as colour or taste that characterise substances; karma (action), representing the activities or motions that substances undergo; sāmānya (generality), facilitating the classification of things into general categories or kinds; viśeṣa (particularity), which distinguishes one entity from another based on specific characteristics; samavāya (inherence), describing the relation between substances and their qualities or parts; and abhāva (non-existence), dealing with absence or non-existence of entities in particular contexts. These padārthas provide a structured framework for understanding and analysing the nature of reality within the Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika philosophical tradition.

(e) Ārya Satya.

Ans: The Pali terms (Sanskrit: arya satya) are commonly translated as “noble truths”. This translation is a convention started by the earliest translators of Buddhist texts into English.

4. Answer in 200 words:

(a) What do you mean by Indian philosophy? Give some salient features of Indian philosophy. 

Ans: Indian philosophy encompasses a rich and diverse tradition of thought that has evolved over several millennia within the Indian subcontinent. At its core, Indian philosophy seeks to explore fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, ethics, and the nature of reality through various schools of thought known as Darshanas. One of its prominent features is its spiritual orientation, emphasising practices like meditation, yoga, and the pursuit of liberation (Moksha) from the cycle of birth and death (Saṃsāra). Metaphysically, Indian philosophies range from the monistic views of Vedanta, which propose a unified reality (Brahman), to the dualistic systems like Sāṅkhya, which distinguish between matter (Prakṛti) and spirit (Puruṣa). Ethics plays a significant role, with concepts such as Dharma (duty/righteousness) and Karma (action and its consequences) shaping moral principles and social behaviour. Indian philosophy is characterised by its pluralism, accommodating diverse viewpoints and approaches to truth, and its reliance on foundational texts like the Vedas, Upanishads, and Bhagavad Gita. It integrates logic and dialectics into philosophical discourse, fostering rigorous debate and analysis. Overall, Indian philosophy continues to inspire profound reflections on the nature of existence and the human condition, influencing not only philosophy but also art, literature, and spiritual practices globally.

(b) Do you think the Cārvāka philosophy is more relevant to the modern world as it propagates worldly pleasure only? Comment. 

Ans: The Cārvāka philosophy is not considered relevant to the modern world because it is seen as a materialistic and hedonistic philosophy that neglects the spiritual and moral dimensions of human existence. The Cārvāka philosophy was a school of Indian materialism that rejected the existence of an afterworld, karma, and the immortality of the self. It was also criticized for its lack of a structured approach, and for its emphasis on perception as the sole source of knowledge.

Here are some other criticisms of the Cārvāka philosophy:

Rejection of spirituality:

The Cārvāka philosophy rejected spirituality and a higher consciousness, which are considered to be separate from religion and obtained through sensory experiences.

Focus on immediate pleasure:

The Cārvāka philosophy focused on immediate pleasure and sensory experiences, which could lead to a life of indulgence and self-gratification.

Lack of social order:

The Cārvāka philosophy was often associated with immorality and a lack of social order.

The Cārvāka philosophy was influential in culture and art, and was mentioned in many Indian epic poems, Sanskrit plays, and poems. However, the doctrine disappeared by the end of the medieval period.

(c) ‘Buddha emancipates the entire humanity from suffering’ – comment on the basis of Buddhist philosophy. 

Ans: The seed of Buddhist philosophy is traced in the teachings of Gautama Buddha (earlier name was Siddhartha) itself. Buddha always emphasised on leading a moral life for the emancipation of human sufferings rather than indulging into philosophical problems. But, the later scholars of Buddhism developed a profound philosophy on the platform of the teachings of Gautama Buddha.

Buddhist religion was bifurcated later on as nayāna and Mahāyāna. Nayāna is spread in south and south-east Asia. Vaibhāsika and Sautrāntika are the philosophical sects of Nayāna. Mahāyāna is prevalent in north and north-east Asia. Yogācāra and Mādhyamika are the philosophical sects of Mahāyāna. These four sects of Buddhist philosophy along with Cārvaka and Jainism constitute six schools of heterodox philosophies (nāstika darśana). Buddhism has a massive impact on Indian philosophy and culture. Due to the constant dialogue and debate between these non-Vedic schools and other schools, Indian philosophy developed. Buddhist logic is a unique contribution of the Buddhists. Along with the spread of Buddhism, Indian culture reached different countries in the world. Today, the term pañcaśi – la used in the foreign policy of India has been coined from Buddhism.

(d) Give a brief sketch of categories, propounded by Vaiśeṣika.

Ans: The founder of the Vaiśeṣika system of Indian philosophy is Kaṇāda (A.D. 100). It is also called Aulukya Darśana. The tradition believes it as one of the oldest philosophies like Sāṅkhya in India. Praśastapāda (A.D. 400) is another important philosopher; who wrote Padārtha dharma saṅgraha, a commentary on the Vaiśeṣika sūtra of Kaṇāda. The later scholars of the Vaiśeṣika School have developed their ideas merely on these two texts. The Vaiśeṣika system believes in the reality of the world and recognises seven ‘Padārthas’ or categories, which are: substance (dravya), quality (guṇa), action (karma), generality (sāmānya), particularity (viśeṣa), relation of inherence (samavāya) and non-existence (abhāva). In fact, the name Vaiśeṣika is kept because it is the one that introduced particularity (viśeṣa) as a category. The system also believes that liberation is the supreme goal of human life. One can attain liberation through the knowledge of the similarities and the dissimilarities of these categories. The followers of this system of philosophy also accept the existence of God and they say that God created, sustained and destroyed the universe. According to the Vaiśeṣika School, the will of God is the cause for creation. He causes the combination of the moving atoms and thus is instrumental in the creation of the world. At the time of the dissolution of the universe the entire world is reduced to the primary state of the seven categories.

(e) Write an essay on valid knowledge of Nyāya.

Ans: The Nyāya school of philosophy, one of the six orthodox systems (āstika) of Indian philosophy, is fundamentally concerned with the means of gaining valid knowledge (pramāṇa) and its role in human life. Central to Nyāya epistemology are four means of obtaining valid knowledge: perception (pratyakṣa), inference (anumāna), comparison (upamāna), and testimony (śabda). Perception involves direct sensory experience, considered the most fundamental and reliable form of knowledge. Inference, on the other hand, relies on logical reasoning from observed facts to unseen conclusions. Comparison or analogy allows one to understand a new object by comparing it with a known one, while testimony emphasises the importance of reliable verbal communication from authoritative sources. The Nyāya system rigorously defines these pramāṇas and their interrelationships, arguing that knowledge must be both true and justified to be valid. This focus on a systematic methodology for acquiring knowledge has influenced various fields, including logic, epistemology, and metaphysics. The Nyāya philosophers also delved into debates on the nature of reality, causation, and the self, contributing significantly to the broader discourse in Indian philosophy. Their insistence on logical rigour and structured debate has left an enduring legacy, making Nyāya an essential component of classical Indian thought.

5. Match the following:

Ans: