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LOGIC AND PHILOSOPHY
2024
LOGIC AND PHILOSOPHY OLD QUESTION PAPER SOLVED
1. Give very short answers:
(a) “logic is a normative science.” Is the statement true?
Ans: Yes, the statement “logic is a normative science” is generally accepted to be true.
(b) What kind of proposition does Scientific Induction establish?
Ans: Scientific induction establishes general real proposition.
(c) What is the ground of unscientific induction?
Ans: The law of Uniformity of Nature and the causation are formal grounds of induction. The process which guarantee the material truth of induction are called material grounds of induction. Observation and experiment are material grounds of induction.
(d) Who is the propounder of scientific Realism?
Ans: Bas van Fraassen is the founder of scientific realism.
(e) Give an example of non-moral action.
Ans: Spilling milk is a nonmoral act, and although you might be judged by the clothes you wear, your decision to wear them is nonmoral.
(f) What word does Buddha use to mean ‘Moksa’ or ‘Liberation?
Ans: Buddha used the word Nibbana (Pali) or Nirvana (Sanskrit) to mean ‘Moksha’ or ‘Liberation.’
(g) Which theory of truth does naive realism support?
Ans: Naive realism supports the correspondence theory of truth.
(h) “Religion is faith in the conservation of values.”who said this?
Ans: T. H. Green.
(i) On which law is the quantitative mark of a cause based?
Ans: The Law of Causation.
(j) How many instance are required for the method of difference?
Ans: Two instances.
(k) What is the meaning of the Greek word ‘Ethos’?
Ans: Character or custom.
(l) “Hypothesis is provisional supposition.”Is it true?
Ans: Yes, it is true.
2. Give an example of Good Analogy.
Ans: “Just as a seed needs water and sunlight to grow into a healthy plant, a child needs education and care to develop into a responsible adult.”
Or
Give the definition of scientific induction.
Ans: Scientific induction is the establishment of a general real proposition, based on observation of a particular instance, in reliance on the principle of the uniformity of nature and the law of causation.
For example:
Ram is mortal.
Rahim is mortal.
Richard is mortal.
3. What do you Mean by ‘conjunction’ of causes?
Ans: A subordinating conjunction can signal a cause-and-effect relationship, a contrast, or some other kind of relationship between the clauses. Common subordinating conjunctions are because, since, as, although, though, while, and whereas. Sometimes an adverb, such as until, after, or before can function as a conjunction.
Or
State two advantages of simple observation?
Ans: Two advantages of simple observation are mentioned below:
(i) Direct Insight: Simple observation provides first hand data, allowing for an accurate and immediate understanding of the subject being studied without relying on reports or secondary sources.
(ii) Cost-Effective: It is a relatively inexpensive method since it does not require specialized equipment, tools, or complex processes, making it accessible and practical for many situations.
4. Mention two difference between primary Quality and Secondary Quality.
Ans: Two differences between primary Quality and Secondary Quality.
(i) Primary Qualities: These are inherent properties of objects, such as shape, size, motion, and number, which exist independently of an observer. Secondary Qualities: These depend on the observer’s perception and include color, taste, sound, and smell.
(ii) Primary Qualities: They are objective and measurable. Secondary Qualities: They are subjective and vary with the observer’s senses.
5. Esse est percipi” give the meaning of the statement.
Ans:The statement “Esse est percipi” means “To be is to be perceived.” It implies that the existence of objects depends on their being perceived by a conscious observer.
Or
What is the theory of pre-established harmony?
Ans: The theory of pre-established harmony, proposed by Leibniz, states that there is no direct interaction between the mind and body. Instead, their actions are coordinated by God in a pre-established way, like two perfectly synchronized clocks.
6. Give an example of Fallacy of Non-observation?
Ans: An example of a fallacy of non-observation is the statement “Many people die in bed. Do not, therefore, lie on the bed”.
7. What are the postulates of Ethics?
Ans: Ethics postulates, regulates, and guides human life. Moral ideals are directly applied to human behavior. What is more intimately connected to practical side of philosophical discourse is ethical deliberation. As human consciousness is in a process of becoming, human person is becoming moral.
Or
What is the meaning of ‘intention’ in Ethics?
Ans: An intention is idea that you plan (or intend) to carry out. If you mean something, it’s an intention. Your goal, purpose, or aim is your intention. It’s something you mean to do, whether you pull it off or not.
8. Write any two criticisms of Naive Realism.
Ans: Two criticisms of Naive Realism are mentioned below:
(i) subjectivity in Perception: Naive Realism assumes that the world is exactly as we perceive it, but this ignores the role of subjective factors, such as emotions and cognitive biases, which influence perception.
(ii) Illusions and Hallucinations: It cannot adequately explain perceptual errors, such as illusions or hallucinations, where there is a disconnect between perception and reality.
9. Give a concrete example of method of difference.
Ans: Example: Suppose two fields are cultivated with the same type of crop, using identical farming techniques and fertilizers. However, one field receives adequate irrigation while the other does not. If the irrigated field produces a higher yield, the difference (adequate irrigation) can be identified as the cause of the increased yield.
10. Why is habitual action considered as an object of moral judgement?
Ans: Habitual actions are considered objects of moral judgement because they reflect an individual’s character and moral values. Over time, repeated actions shape one’s habits, which influence behavior and societal impact. If a habit leads to positive outcomes, it is judged morally good; if it causes harm, it is judged morally bad.
11. What do you mean by ‘vera cause’?
Ans: Vera causa is a Latin phrase that translates to “true cause”. It means a cause that is in harmony with other causes that are already known. It can also refer to the true cause of a natural phenomenon, which is caused by an agency whose existence is independently proven.
Or
What is Working Hypothesis?
Ans: A hypothesis is an assumption that is made based on some evidence. This is the initial point of any investigation that translates the research questions into predictions. It includes components like variables, population and the relation between the variables.
12. Give a concrete example of direct variation.
Ans: An example of direct variation could be a point such as (1,2). That is, when 1 is input, 2 is output. If this is a direct variation, then the constant of variation (or ratio between the two variables) is k=2/1=2. So the direct variation equation is y=2x.
13. What is ‘hypothesis concerning law’?
Ans: Hypothesis Concerning Law: Sometimes, it may be the case that we know the agent of the fact but the Law by which the agent acted, it is unknown to us. In this case we construct a hypothesis concerning the law through which the agent acted. This kind of Hypothesis is called “Hypothesis Concerning the Law”.
14. What is Induction? State two difference between Induction and Deduction.
Ans: Induction is an opportunity for an organisation to welcome their new recruit, help them settle in and ensure they have the knowledge and support they need to perform their role. For an employer, effective induction may also affect employee turnover, absenteeism and employer brand.
Two difference between Induction and Deduction are mentioned below:
| Aspect | Induction | Deduction |
| Reasoning Direction | Moves from specific cases to general conclusions. | Moves from general principles to specific cases. |
| Certainty of Conclusion | The conclusion is probable and not guaranteed. | The conclusion is certain if the premises are true. |
Or
State four points of difference between Scientific Induction and unscientific induction.
Ans: Four points difference between Scientific Induction and Unscientific induction are mentioned below:
| Aspect | Scientific Induction | Unscientific Induction |
| Basis of Evidence | Systematic observation and verified experiments. | Casual or incomplete observations. |
| Logical Foundation | Follows a structured and logical reasoning process. | Lacks a systematic or logical approach. |
| Accuracy of Conclusion | Reliable and testable conclusions. | Uncertain and often erroneous conclusions. |
| Scope of Application | Forms the basis for scientific laws and theories. | Limited applicability, prone to generalization. |
15. What do you mean by the doctrine of ‘plurality of cause? Why is ‘plurality of causes‘ not scientifically acceptable?
Ans: The doctrine of “plurality of causes” refers to the idea that a single effect can arise from multiple, independent causes. This means that there may be several different and unrelated factors, each capable of producing the same outcome on its own. For instance, the death of a person might be attributed to multiple potential causes, such as a heart attack, an accident, or poisoning, with each acting independently. While this concept may appear intuitive in certain contexts, it challenges the scientific approach, which seeks to identify consistent and specific cause-and-effect relationships. In science, the preference is to establish a clear understanding of how various factors interact to produce an effect rather than attributing it to separate, unrelated causes. The doctrine of plurality of causes is often contrasted with multifactorial causation, where multiple interrelated factors contribute to an outcome in a systematic and predictable way
The plurality of causes is the idea that the same effect can be produced by different causes in different circumstances.
The concept of “plurality of causes” is not scientifically acceptable because it undermines the foundational principles of science, which seek specific, consistent, and reproducible causal relationships. If multiple unrelated causes could independently produce the same effect, it would compromise predictability, making it difficult to formulate reliable scientific laws. This idea also violates the principle of parsimony (Occam’s Razor), which favors simpler explanations over unnecessarily complex ones. Additionally, the existence of multiple independent causes for a single effect complicates empirical testing, as isolating and verifying each cause becomes impractical. Science also strives for universality, aiming to establish laws that apply consistently under specific conditions. The plurality of causes conflicts with this goal by suggesting different, unrelated explanations for the same phenomenon. While science acknowledges multifactorial causation, where interconnected factors collectively contribute to an effect, this is distinct from the idea of completely independent causes. For instance, heart disease results from a combination of factors like genetics, diet, and lifestyle, which interact rather than acting in isolation. Thus, the interconnected nature of causality aligns with scientific principles, whereas the notion of a plurality of unrelated causes does not.
Or
Mention four characteristics of experiment.
Ans: Four characteristics of experiment are mentioned below:
(a) Absence of researcher’s bias: Researcher’s bias refers to the influence of a researcher’s personal beliefs, preferences, or expectations on the outcome of the experiment. To maintain objectivity, experiments should be designed and conducted in such a way that the researcher’s views do not affect the data collection, interpretation, or conclusions. This can be achieved through blind or double-blind study designs, where neither the participants nor the researchers know the group assignments, minimizing personal influence.
(b) Absence of conditioned environment: A conditioned environment refers to an artificial or altered setting that may influence the behavior of participants in an experiment. In a true experimental setup, the environment should ideally reflect real-world conditions or be neutral, so that the results are not skewed by unnatural circumstances. For example, if an experiment is conducted in a highly controlled lab environment that does not replicate everyday conditions, it could lead to results that are not applicable in real-life situations.
(c) Evidence of causality: Causality means demonstrating that one variable directly causes a change in another. In experiments, it’s important to establish a cause-and-effect relationship, not just a correlation between variables. This can be done by manipulating the independent variable and observing its effect on the dependent variable while controlling other factors. Proper experimental designs, such as randomization, control groups, and replication, are essential to provide solid evidence of causality.
(d) Control of experimental elements: Control of experimental elements involves managing variables to isolate the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable. This is done through techniques like controlling extraneous variables, using control groups, and standardizing procedures. By controlling these elements, the researcher can ensure that any observed effects are due to the manipulation of the independent variable and not other outside influences. This enhances the validity of the experiment and reduces confounding factors that could distort the results.
16. Write a brief note on moksa’ or Liberation’ as explained in Indian philosophy.
Ans: The definition of moksha is the freedom from the eternal cycle of life, death, and rebirth. This is the ultimate goal of an individual who practices Hinduism. Moksha is derived from the Sanskrit word, muc, which means to free. In Indian culture, the term moksha literally means freedom from samsara.
In Indian philosophy, moksha (or moksa) refers to liberation or release from the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (samsara). It is the ultimate goal of various philosophical traditions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, where the soul (atman) is freed from the material world and its attachments.
In Hinduism, moksha is achieved through self-realization, where one understands their true nature as being identical with Brahman, the Supreme Reality. This realization is attained through spiritual practices such as meditation, devotion (bhakti), knowledge (jnana), and righteous living (dharma). Moksha leads to eternal peace, freedom from suffering, and union with the divine.
In Buddhism, moksha is referred to as nirvana, the cessation of desires, attachments, and suffering. It is achieved through the realization of the impermanence of all things and the practice of the Noble Eightfold Path.
In Jainism, moksha is attained through the purification of the soul by following the path of non-violence (ahimsa), truth, and ascetic practices, leading to liberation from karmic bonds.
Thus, moksha represents the highest spiritual state, where the individual soul transcends material existence and attains eternal bliss and freedom.
Or
Explain the concept of ‘Dharma’ as ‘Purusartha’.
Ans: Dharma is the foundation of Purushartha and represents the moral and ethical duties and responsibilities that an individual must uphold. It encompasses one’s obligations to family, society, and the world at large. Dharma guides individuals in making righteous choices and living a life of integrity.
17. Define Idealism. Name two idealistic philosophers mentioning their theories.
Ans: Idealism is a philosophical theory that emphasizes the importance of ideas, mind, or spirit as the basis of reality.
Two idealistic philosophers mentioning their theories.
Plato: Theory of Forms (Ideas): Plato’s idealism is best known through his Theory of Forms, which posits that the material world is a mere shadow of a higher, perfect reality consisting of eternal, unchanging Forms or Ideas. According to Plato, objects in the physical world are mere representations of these ideal Forms. For example, the concept of “beauty” or “goodness” exists as perfect, abstract Forms in a non-material realm, and physical manifestations are only imperfect approximations of these ideals.
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel:
George Berkeley Idealism (Esse est percipi): Berkeley’s philosophy is encapsulated in his famous dictum, “Esse est percipi” (“To be is to be perceived”). He argued that material objects do not exist independently of the mind. For Berkeley, the existence of things is reliant on being perceived by a conscious mind. He rejected the idea of matter existing outside of perception and proposed that all of reality consists of ideas and perceptions in the minds of individuals and, ultimately, in the mind of God.
Or
Write a short note on Plato’s idealism.
Ans: Plato’s idealism is best known through his Theory of Forms, which posits that the material world is a mere shadow of a higher, perfect reality consisting of eternal, unchanging Forms or Ideas. According to Plato, objects in the physical world are mere representations of these ideal Forms. For example, the concept of “beauty” or “goodness” exists as perfect, abstract Forms in a non-material realm, and physical manifestations are only imperfect approximations of these ideals. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel:
18. Write any four characteristic of Naive Realism.
Ans: Four characteristic of Naive Realism are mentioned below:
(i) Direct Perception: Naive realism posits that we perceive the world directly as it is, without any intermediary processes. Our senses provide an accurate representation of external objects and events.
(ii) Objective Reality: According to this view, objects have an existence independent of our perception. What we see, hear, or touch corresponds directly to an objective reality.
(iii) Common Sense View: Naive realism aligns with the common-sense belief that the world exists as it appears to us. There is no distinction between how things seem to be and how they actually are.
(iv) No Role for Interpretation: Naive realism holds that perception does not involve interpretation or mental construction. What we perceive is simply a reflection of the external world, without any modification or filtering by the mind.
19. Mention the names of different kinds of Hypothesis.
Ans: The names of different kinds of Hypothesis.
(i) Simple Hypothesis: A simple hypothesis posits a relationship between two variables. It suggests a direct cause-and-effect relationship without specifying the direction of the effect.
For example: “Increased exercise leads to improved cardiovascular health.”
(ii) Complex Hypothesis: Complex hypotheses involve relationships between multiple variables. These hypotheses may propose how several factors interact to produce a particular outcome. For example:”The interaction between genetic predisposition, diet, and exercise influences longevity.”
(iii) Associative Hypothesis: An associative hypothesis suggests that there is a relationship between two variables, but it does not imply causation. It states that changes in one variable are associated with changes in another. For example: “There is a correlation between income level and access to healthcare services.”
(iv) Causal Hypothesis: A causal hypothesis asserts that changes in one variable directly cause changes in another. It implies a cause-and-effect relationship that can be tested through experimentation or controlled observation. For example:”Increased consumption of sugary drinks causes an increase in body weight.”
Or
What do you mean by ‘crucial Instance?
Ans: A crucial instance is a type of experiment that is considered to be a crowning example of Francis Bacon’s method of induction.
20. State two advantages and two disadvantages of the method of Difference.
Ans: Two advantages and two disadvantages of the method of Difference.
Advantages:
(i) Simplicity and Clarity: The method is straightforward and easy to apply as it involves comparing two situations that only differ in one factor, making it simpler to isolate the cause-and-effect relationship.
(ii) Control Over Variables: By focusing on a single differing factor between the cases, this method allows for more effective control over extraneous variables, reducing the risk of confounding influences.
Disadvantages:
(i) Limited Applicability: This method may not be applicable when multiple factors interact or contribute to the outcome, as it only isolates one differing factor at a time.
(ii) Potential Bias: If the cases being compared are not sufficiently similar in all respects except for the differing factor, the results may be biased or misleading, making it difficult to draw accurate conclusions.
21. Briefly discuss the nature of Monads as described by Leibnitz.
Ans: “Monad” means that which is one, has no parts and is therefore indivisible. These are the fundamental existing things, according to Leibniz. His theory of monads is meant to be a superior alternative to the theory of atoms that was becoming popular in natural philosophy at the time. Monads, as described by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, are the fundamental building blocks of reality in his metaphysical system. They are simple, indivisible substances that cannot be broken down further, unlike material particles. Monads are non-material, spiritual entities that possess an inner force or activity. Each monad has the capacities of perception, which allows it to reflect the state of the universe, and appetition, the drive to move towards its next state of being. These qualities, while not conscious in the human sense, are essential for the monads’ evolution. Importantly, monads do not interact directly with one another; instead, they operate according to a pre-established harmony designed by God, ensuring that their behaviors align perfectly without direct causal influence. Monads are arranged in a hierarchy, with simpler, more basic ones at the bottom and more complex, reflective ones, like human minds, at the top. They are “windowless,” meaning they cannot exchange information directly with each other, but each perceives the universe from its own unique perspective, contributing to the overall harmony of the cosmos. Through this system, Leibniz sought to explain a universe where all things are interconnected without direct interaction, governed by a divine, rational plan.
22. Explain the mental stage of a voluntary action.
Ans: The mental stage of voluntary action is actuated by a spring of action. It is a feeling of want, actual or ideal. It is either an instinct or an appetite, or an intellectual, moral, or aesthetic craving. A feeling of want is always painful and generates an impluse. But it is usually mingled with pleasure which arises from the anticipation of satisfication of the want in future. Thus the painful feeling of want is mixed with an agreeable feeling of ideal satisfaction. But the disagreeable feeling predominates over the agreeable feeling. The feeling of want e.g. an appetite leads the rational agent to think out some appropriate object which is necessary to relieve the want. The object itself to remove the want, is said to be the end of the action. The idea or thought of the object which excites the state of desire for its attainment is called the motive.
The spring of action or the feeling of want is converted into a desire. Desire is a craving to satisfy a feeling of want by attaining its proper object. In desire there is the idea of the object or end or motive which will satisfy the feeling of want. There is also the idea of the means for realising the end.In complex action many wants demand satisfaction. If one is satisfied, the other has to be rejected altogether. Thus, these arises in the mind a competition, rivalry or conflict between the different motives and desires. When there is a conflict of motives, the self arrests action and deliberates upon the merits and demerits by different motives. The self weighs them in the balance and considers the pros and cons. This is called deliberation.
After deliberation, the self chooses a particular motive and identifies itself with it. It chooses a particulars course of action and rejects the rest. This act of selection of one motive to the exclusion of others is called choice or decision.
Or
Define Ethics. Why is Ethics called a normative science?
Ans: Ethics, the discipline concerned with what is morally good and bad and morally right and wrong.
Ethics is one of the most well-known examples of a normative science. Ethics is a normative science that examines moral principles and behaviour. It is concerned with determining what is right and wrong, good and bad in human conduct.
23. “Religion is the source of morality. Explain the statement.
Ans: The statement “Religion is the source of morality” suggests that religious beliefs and teachings have historically played a central role in shaping moral values and guiding human behavior. Religions provide structured frameworks that define right and wrong, offering principles for ethical living. For instance, the Ten Commandments in Christianity, the concept of Dharma in Hinduism, and the teachings of the Quran in Islam present rules and guidelines that encourage honesty, compassion, respect, and justice. These moral codes are often considered to originate from a divine authority, which lends them a sense of absoluteness and universality.
Religion also fosters a sense of accountability, as many faiths emphasize that actions in this life have spiritual consequences, such as divine judgment or karma. This belief motivates individuals to act ethically not only for personal or societal benefit but also to align with divine expectations. Additionally, religious communities help reinforce shared values, creating social cohesion through common moral practices and traditions. However, while religion has profoundly influenced morality, it is not the sole source. Secular philosophies and humanist frameworks also provide ethical systems based on reason and empathy, showing that morality can stem from both religious and non-religious foundations.
Or
Write any four characteristic of religion.
Ans: Four characteristic of religion are mentioned below:
(i) Belief in the Supernatural: Religions often center around the belief in supernatural entities or forces, such as gods, spirits, or divine powers, which influence the natural world.
(ii) Sacred Texts or Traditions: Most religions have sacred texts, scriptures, or oral traditions that convey moral guidelines, rituals, and the teachings of the faith.
(iii) Rituals and Practices: Religions include various rituals, ceremonies, or acts of worship, such as prayers, fasting, or festivals, to connect with the divine or express faith.
(iv) Moral and Ethical Guidelines: Religions provide a set of moral and ethical principles to guide the behavior and conduct of their followers in daily life.
24. Define unscientific Induction and state its characteristics.
Ans: Unscientific induction is the establishment of a general real proposition on the ground of mere uniform or uncontradicted experience without any attempt at explaining a causal connection.
The characteristics of Unscientific induction are:
(i) Unscientific induction establishes general real propositions. Induction establishes proposition. A proposition states a relation between two terms. We seek to prove a connection between two terms and establish a proposition. But the proposition which we derive in the conclusion are general propositions. As we know, general proposition is one in which the predicate is affirmed or denied of an indefinite number of individuals. But the general proposition, which induction established are not verbal. They are real propositions. A verbal proposition merely states the connection or a part of the connotation of a term. But a real proposition, does not merely analyses the connotation of a term but adds something new to our knowledge.
(ii) The conclusion of unscientific induction is based on mere uniform or Uncontradicted experience. Unscientific induction draws its conclusion on the ground of mere enumeration or counting instances. So far as our experience goes, we have never come across any contradictory cases. On the strength of this uniform or uncontradicted experience, we arrive at the general proposition.
(iii) In unscientific induction, there is no knowledge of any causal connection. Hence, the conclusions are merely probable. Probability is a matter of degrees, ranging from zero to what very nearly approaches scientific certainty. But however high the degree of probability, unscientific induction can never reach the certainty of scientific induction.
Or
Define analogy with an example. Mention its characteristics.
Ans: An analogy is a literary device or cognitive tool that highlights the similarity between two different things or concepts. It helps in understanding complex or unfamiliar ideas by drawing comparisons to something more familiar. By examining the relationship between two sets of objects or situations, an analogy helps to illustrate how one thing works or behaves based on its similarity to another.
Example: An example of an analogy is: “Just as a plant needs water to grow, a student needs education to succeed.” This analogy compares the necessity of water for a plant’s growth with the necessity of education for a student’s success. While both scenarios are different (one involves a plant and the other involves a student), they are similar in terms of how both are dependent on an essential resource for growth or progress.
Its characteristics are:
(i) Similarity: The primary characteristic of an analogy is the identification of similarities between two different objects, situations, or concepts. It compares the relationships between two pairs of things that have similar structures or functions.
Clarification:
(ii) Analogies are often used to simplify complex ideas or make them easier to understand. By comparing an unknown concept to a known one, they help clarify new information.
(iii) The structure of an analogy involves comparing two things in order to highlight how they are alike in certain aspects, although they may be different in others. This comparison enables deeper understanding.
25. Explain the principle of Uniformity of Nature. Why is it called the formal ground of Induction?
Ans: The law of Uniformity of Nature states that nature behaves uniformity under similar circumstances. There is a unity among the diversities of nature. Among the changeable relations between the different parts of the world process, there is a general character. The law of Uniformity of Nature expresses this general character.
Here are some points:
(i) Consistency Across Time: The principle assumes that the natural laws that hold today will continue to hold in the future. For example, if we observe that water boils at 100°C at sea level, we expect it to continue boiling at 100°C under similar conditions in the future.
(ii) Consistency Across Space: The laws of nature are assumed to apply everywhere. If a particular scientific principle holds true in one place, it is expected to hold true in other places as well. For instance, gravity is believed to function in the same way everywhere on Earth and in the universe.
The term “formal ground of induction” refers to the logical justification or foundation for using inductive reasoning in drawing conclusions from observations or experiences. Inductive reasoning involves making generalizations based on specific instances or patterns. The “formal ground” is the underlying principle or rationale that supports the validity of this method of reasoning.
In a philosophical or logical context, it is considered “formal” because it relates to the structured, systematic approach to inductive logic. The formal ground helps to establish that, under certain conditions, inductive inferences can be considered reliable or reasonable. However, it also recognizes that inductive reasoning doesn’t guarantee certainty, only probability or likelihood based on observed patterns.
Or
What is Experiment? Describe the characteristics of Experiment.
Ans: An experiment is a controlled procedure carried out to investigate the relationship between variables. It involves manipulating one or more independent variables to observe the effect on the dependent variable while controlling other influencing factors. Experiments are essential in scientific research to test hypotheses and theories.
Characteristics of an Experiment:
(i) Control: Experiments require controlling variables to ensure that only the factor being tested influences the results.
(ii) Reproducibility: Experiments should be repeatable by others, producing consistent results under the same conditions.
(iii) Manipulation of Variables: The independent variable is deliberately changed, and the dependent variable is observed for its response.
(iv) Observation and Measurement: Accurate observation and measurement of outcomes are crucial for drawing valid conclusions.
(v) Randomization: To eliminate bias, participants or samples may be randomly assigned to different experimental conditions.
26. What are the conditions of a valid hypothesis? Explain Any two of them.
Ans: A valid hypothesis must meet certain conditions to ensure that it is testable and meaningful in a scientific or research context.
These conditions are:
(i) Testability: A valid hypothesis must be testable through empirical observation or experimentation. It should articulate a clear and specific prediction that can be subjected to empirical scrutiny. Testability ensures that the hypothesis can be either supported or refuted based on evidence, contributing to the advancement of scientific knowledge.
(ii) Falsifiability: A valid hypothesis should be falsifiable, meaning that there must be potential empirical observations or experimental outcomes that could refute or disprove the hypothesis. Falsifiability distinguishes scientific hypotheses from unfalsifiable claims or beliefs, emphasizing the importance of empirical evidence in evaluating the validity of scientific propositions.
Or
What are the stages of hypothesis? Explain with examples.
Ans: The stages of a hypothesis involve a systematic approach to formulating and testing an idea or assumption. The process begins with observation and the identification of a problem or phenomenon that requires explanation, followed by a literature review to understand existing knowledge and identify gaps. Based on these insights, a hypothesis is formulated as a clear, concise, and testable statement. This is followed by the operationalization stage, where variables are defined in measurable terms, and the methods for testing the hypothesis are determined. Next, the hypothesis is tested through experiments, surveys, or observational studies, and the collected data is analyzed using appropriate statistical tools to evaluate its significance. Based on the analysis, conclusions are drawn to determine whether the hypothesis is supported or rejected. If supported, the hypothesis may lead to further testing or development into a theory; if rejected, it is refined or replaced, and the process is repeated. Finally, the results are documented and reported, ensuring transparency and contributing to the advancement of knowledge. This systematic process ensures that hypotheses are scientifically evaluated and validated.
Examples: If you stay up late, then you feel tired the next day. Turning off your phone makes it charge faster.
27. Explain the method of agreement with concrete examples.
Ans: The method of agreement, proposed by philosopher John Stuart Mill, is a logical approach used to identify a common factor across multiple instances of a phenomenon to determine its cause. According to this method, if several occurrences of a particular event share only one common circumstance, that circumstance is likely the cause or a necessary condition of the event. This method is particularly useful when the same outcome is observed in varied contexts.
For example, consider a group of people who attended a party and later experienced food poisoning. By examining what everyone ate, it is discovered that all those who fell ill consumed the same dish, say a salad, while those who avoided the salad remained healthy. Using the method of agreement, it can be inferred that the salad is the likely cause of the food poisoning, as it is the only common factor among the affected individuals. Similarly, in another scenario, if several electronic devices stop working after a power outage, the common factor the power outage can be identified as the likely cause of the malfunction.
Or
Define the Joint Method of agreement and Difference with an example. State two advantages of this method?
Ans: The Joint Method of Agreement and Difference is a logical technique proposed by John Stuart Mill to establish causation. This method combines the strengths of the Method of Agreement and the Method of Difference to identify a common factor that is both present when the effect occurs and absent when it does not. The Method of Agreement is used to pinpoint a factor consistently present in all cases where the effect is observed, while the Method of Difference ensures that this factor is absent in instances where the effect is not observed. By integrating these two methods, the Joint Method provides a robust approach to isolating causative factors.
For example, suppose multiple individuals develop stomach pain after eating a meal. Using the Method of Agreement, it is observed that all affected individuals consumed a specific dish, say pasta. To further confirm causation, the Method of Difference is applied by comparing these cases with others who ate at the same time but did not consume the pasta and did not develop stomach pain. The consistent presence of the pasta in cases of stomach pain and its absence in cases without the pain points to the pasta as the likely cause.
The Joint Method has two key advantages. Firstly, it offers greater reliability in identifying causation, as it cross-verifies findings using both agreement and difference. Secondly, it is highly practical in scenarios involving complex variables, as it effectively isolates the true cause from extraneous factors, making it a valuable tool in scientific and everyday problem solving.
