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NIOS Class 12 Sociology Chapter 1 An Introduction To Sociology
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An Introduction To Sociology
Chapter: 1
MODULE 1: SOCIOLOGY – BASIC CONCEPTS
TEXTUAL QUESTIONS
INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.1
Q.1. Write true or false against each statement:
1. Industrial revolution took place in U.S.A.
Ans. False.
2. Auguste Comte is called father of Sociology.
Ans. True.
3. Sociology is the scientific study of social relations.
Ans. True.
4. Sociology is not the study of human society.
Ans. False.
5. Human behaviour is flexible and dynamic.
Ans. True.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.2
Q.1. Fill in the blanks with correct words:
1. Application of objective methods of investigation is called ……………. .
Ans. science.
2. Traditional method of sociology is …………….. .
Ans. positivism.
3. Functionalism focuses on ……………. and ………….. .
Ans. social order, stability.
4. Sociological perspectives are broad …………….. about society and social behaviour.
Ans. assumptions.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.3
Answer the following (all the three questions) in 8 to 10 lines:
Q.1. What is the scope of sociology?
Ans. Scope of Sociology:
(i) Sociology is a systematic and objective study of social life, which is created by a variety of interactions between individuals and groups. When similar behaviour is repeated in a given situation it becomes a norm or an institution.
(ii) People in different status and performing different roles, interact with other people formally or informally. All these repetitive actions are part of the culture of a given group and define the social organisation. Sociologists study individual’s actions in different social relationships such as between husband and wife, teacher and student, buyer and seller. They also study different social processes such as child rearing, co-operation, competition, conflict and migration etc. and they study different organisations and groups. For examples family, caste, associations and state etc.
(iii) Sociology, therefore, is the study of social life as a whole. It has a wide range of concerns and interests. It seeks to provide classifications and forms of social relationships, institutions and associations relating to social, economic, moral, religious and political aspects of human life.
Q.2. What is the relevance of sociology in day to day life?
Ans. The relevance of sociology in day to day life:
1. The improved understanding of a given set of social circumstances often gives us all a better chance of controlling them.
2. Sociology provides the means of increasing our cultural sensitivities, allowing policies to be based on an awareness of divergent cultural values.
3. We can investigate the consequences of the adoption of particular policy programmes.
4. Finally and perhaps most important, sociology provides self-enlightenment, offering groups and individuals an increased opportunity to alter the conditions of their own lives.
Q.3. What are the four characteristics of science?
Ans. The four characteristics of sociology as a science are:
1. Theoretical.
2. Empirical.
3. Cumulative.
4. Non-ethical.
A brief description of the above characteristics is given below:
1. Theoretical: It attempts to summarize complex observations in abstract logically related propositions, which purport to explain causal relationships in the subject matter. Its main aim is to interpret and inter-relate sociological data in order to explain the nature of social phenomena and to produce hypotheses
whose final validity can be checked by further empirical research.
2. Empirical: It is based on observation and reasoning, not supernatural/speculative revelations, and its results are not speculative. In the early stages of their creative work, all scientists speculate, of course, but ideally at least, they submit their speculations to the test of fact before announcing them as scientific discovers. All aspects of sociological knowledge are subjet to evaluation made about social behaviour or can be put to test for empirical evidence.
3. Cumulative: Sociological theories are built upon one another, extending and refining the older ones and producing the new ones. As such theoretical integration becomes a goal in the construction of sociological formulations. Thus, sociology is cumulative.
4. Non-ethical: Sociologists do not ask whether particular social actions are good or bad; they seek merely to explain them. It addresses issues. Study of human relations is the prime consideration in sociology. In the context, Morris Ginsberg observes that ethical problems should be dealt with neutrality. Objectivity and rationality based on a thorough knowledge of a situation alone can ensure scientific status to the discipline of sociology.
Conclusion: In all these respects, sociology is far from having reached perfection; but is being steadily made.
TERMINAL EXERCISES
Q.1. What is meant by sociology?
Ans. (i) A French philosopher named Auguste Comte coined the word ‘sociology’ in 1830, for that branch of science which studied human behaviour.
(ii) Sociology is derived out of two Latin root words socils meaning companion or association, and logos meaning science.
(iii) There is a general agreement that sociology is the science of human society and of social relations, social groups and social change.
(iv) It is one of the several social sciences others being social anthropology, economics, political science, psychology, human geography, public administration, mass communication etc.
(v) Hobhouse explained how sociology studied the interaction of human minds.
(vi) However, Emile Durkheim was more precise he said that sociology is a study of collective, representation. All our thinking, feeling and doing constitute social facts.
(vii) Social fact, according to Emile Durkheim is exterior to human mind and it puts constraints on human behaviour.
(viii) Emile Durkheim says that all that which is a social fact constitutes the subject matter of the study of sociology.
(ix) Max Weber defined sociology differently. He said that human activities are oriented towards some action, which fulfils some goals. Individuals in the society are busy in action for obtaining of decided or given objectives or interests.
(x) Actions, according to Max Weber, constitute the subject matter of sociology. Since every social activity is directed at some other person, sociology studies the interaction system which shape social institutions, like polity, the hospital and bureaucracy.
Q.2. What is the distinctiveness of sociological perspective?
Ans. The distinctiveness of sociological perspective: Sociological perspectives are broad assumptions about society and social behaviour that provide a view point for the study of specific problems. There are two main descriptive perspectives in sociology. These are positivistic (the traditional scientific perspective) and phenomenology, which can be described as ‘less scientific’ in that some researchers reject the idea of building theories by the application of the scientific method preferring to use more interpretative methods.
1. Positivistic Perspective or Positivism: Positivism is the traditional method of sociology, which is generally associated with Auguste Comte. Comte’s emphasis on reporting of social facts is like what wo find in natural sciences where accuracy and objectivity in understanding and analysis are core characteristics. Logic in recording of facts is an added element in scientific method.
Within the Positivism school of sociology, there are two dominant theoretical perspectives, which tend to produce their findings from scientific techniques.
They are:
(i) The Functionalist Perspective: Functional analysis also known as functionalism and structural functionalism is rooted in the origin of sociology.
(ii) The Conflict Perspective: The conflict theorists stress inequalities and regard society as a system made of individual and groups which are competing for scarce resources. These groups may form alliances or co-operate with one another, but underneath the surface harmony lies a basic competitive struggle to gain control over scarce resources.
2. Phenomenology (Interpretive Perspective): The second theoretical perspective is called Phenomenological. It stems most prominently from Max Weber. The phenomenologist is concerned with understanding of human behaviour from the actor’s own frame of reference. The phenomenologist thus examines how the world is experienced. For him or her, the important reality is what people imagine to be.
Each of the sociological perspectives described focuses on the different aspects of social reality, functionalism on social order and stability; and theory of conflict on social tension and changes and phenomenological perspective on the subjective interpretations of actors of the social reality. Each of these perspectives has a significant role to play in understanding and analyzing the nature of society.
Q.3. Why is Auguste Comte called the father of sociology?
Ans. Auguste Comte is called the father of sociology because he coined the word ‘Sociology’ in 1830, for that branch of science which studied human behaviour. In fact, he created a hierarchy of sciences in which he put sociology at the top. He argued that sciences dealing with simple phenomena were first to arrive. Since sociology deals with the most complex phenomena of social behaviour it is a recent addition to the sciences.
He suggested first of all that sociologists should use the tools of research developed by natural sciences. He developed a rational approach (scientific method) to the study of society based on observations and experiments.
Q.4. What was Emile Durkheim’s concern in sociology?
Ans. Emile Durkheim was more precise (in defining the sociology) and he said that, ‘Sociology is study of social phenomena. He says that all that which is a social fact constitutes the subject matter of the study of sociology.
Emile Durkheim was one of the founders (the second one was Herbert Spencer) of the functionalist perspective of sociology. He viewed society as ‘self-regulating and self-maintaining social system’ with certain basic needs such as social order, providing for the supply preserving of goods and services and protecting the young ones. If these needs are met, he believed that society would remain in balance or equilibrium.
Emile Durkheim implies by social organization almost exclusively social integration and regulation through consensus about moral a values.
Q.5. What is sociology? Discuss scientific nature of sociology.
Ans. I. Sociology is the study of society and human behaviour. The word sociology is derived out of two Latin root words socils meaning companion or association and logos meaning science. There is a general agreement among the scholars that the sociology is the science of human society and social relations, social groups and social change.
II. Scientific nature of Sociology:
(i) Sociology is a scientific discipline. It is a science in the sense that involves objective and systematic methods of investigation and evaluation of social reality in the light of empirical evidence and interpretation.
(ii) However, it is also a fact that sociology cannot be directly modelled on the patterns of natural sciences, because human behaviour is different from the world of nature.
(iii) Among other differences the subject matter of natural science is relatively static and unchanging whereas human behaviour, the subject matter of sociology, is flexible and dynamic.
(iv) The founder fathers of sociology were concerned with the study of social order and change. They also desired to model the science of society or sociology as exact a discipline as natural sciences.
(v) No doubt sociology is a science because it fulfils the basic requirements of objective and rational knowledge of social reality.
Q.6. Explain various perspectives in sociology.
Ans. Various Perspectives in Sociology:
(i) To study social structure and social change.
(ii) To improve people’s understanding of breakdowns and rearrangements of social structures.
(iii) The knowledge gained through a scientific approach should be used to plan society’s welfare.
(iv) To provide opportunities for study of institution or organisations like politics, family religion, social control, and industry or work, associations, communities, division of labour social differentiation of stratification, art and aesthetics.
(v) Philosophers like Karl Marx urge that real objective of the sociology is to help the people to unite the working class against the capitalists and to create a classless society from a class struggle, so that the society can became exploitationless.
Q.7. Discuss the nature and scope of sociology.
Ans. Nature of Sociology: Sociology is a scientific discipline. It is a science in the sense that it involves objectives and systematic methods of investigation and evaluation of social reality in the light of empirical evidence and interpretation.
Sociology cannot be directly modelled on the patterns of natural sciences, because human behaviour is different from the world of nature.
Scope of Sociology:
(i) Sociology is a systematic and objective study of social life, which is created by a variety of interactions between individuals and groups. When similar behaviour is repeated in a given situation it becomes a norm or an institution.
(ii) People in different status performing different roles, interact with other people formally or informally. All these repetitive actions are part of the culture of a given group and define the social organisation. Sociologists study individual’s actions in different social relationships such as between husband and wife, teacher and student, buyer and seller. They also study different social processes such as child rearing etc.
(iii) Sociology, therefore, is the study of social life as a whole. It has a wide range of concerns and interests. It seeks to provide classifications and forms of social relationships, institutions and associations relating to social, economic, moral, religious and political aspects of human life.
Following are four main aspects of society that are the core subject matter of sociology:
(a) Culture: Culture is the totality of learned and socially transmitted behaviour from one generation to the next. It includes symbols, signs and language, besides religion, rituals, beliefs and artefacts.
(b) Social Organisation: The term ‘social organisation’ refers to interdependence of different aspects of society. This is an essential characteristic of all enduring social entities, such as groups, communities and collectivities. Currently, social organisation is used to refer to the interdependence of parts of in-groups of all sizes, form a clique of workers in hospitals, and factories to large scale societies and organisations.
(c) Social Institutions: A social institution is a procedure, practice and an instrument, hence an ensemble of a variety of customs and habits accumulated over a period of time.
In every society, people form social institutions to meet their basic needs of survival. Institutions are tools and instruments of human transactions. These are stable clusters of rules, values and norms.
(d) Social Structure: It is a pattern of inter-relations between individuals. Every society has a social structure, a complex of main groups, institutions and arrangements relating to status and power.
It is said by some scholars that the study of social structure is comparable to the study of human anatomy and that of social organisation to that of physiology. But that is only a partial and not a complete analogy.
SOME OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
Q.1. Write the name of two applied social sciences.
Ans. (i) Business Administration.
(ii) Management.
Q.2. In which century the scientific studies of society and social groups began?
Ans. In the nineteenth century.
Q.3. What was the nature of writings of the 19th century about society?
Ans. Those writings were philosophical or literary.
Q.4. Who is the author of ‘An Invitation of Sociology?
Ans. Peter Berger.
Q.5. Who is called ‘Father of Sociology’?
Ans. Auguste Comte.
Q.6. To which country Comte belonged?
Ans. France.
Q.7. What attempts are made by the sociologist as a scientist?
Ans. As a scientist, the sociologist tries to be objective, to control his / her personal preferences and prejudices to perceive clearly rather than to judge normatively.
Q.8. In the initial stage how did sociology and social anthropology separate from each other?
Ans. No doubt both sociology and social anthropology study human society. What separated them initially was the type of society being studied. Sociologists, studying their own society and anthropologists studying oth mainly tribal society.
Q.9. Write about the work of sociologist according to Peter Berger? What does he say about the nature of this discipline?
Ans. (i) In his work ‘An Institution of Sociology: A Humanistic Perspective, Peter Berger describes a sociologist as someone concerned with understanding society in a disciplined way’.
(ii) The nature of Sociology is scientific. This means that what the sociologist finds and says about the social phenomena the studies occur within a certain rather strictly defined frame of reference.
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
Q.1. Distinguish between theological, metaphysical and positivistic stage.
Ans. Auguste Comte (1798-1857) believed in the possibility of formulating laws of society like the laws of physics. He argued that in all societies ideas and beliefs about the world move through three inevitable, step-by-step, evolutionary stages. This is known as the law of three stages.
(i) Theological Stage: The first stage of law is the theological stage. In this stage, explanations are supernatural.
(ii) Metaphysical Stage: This is the second stage of the law. In this stage. explanations are not supernatural, but are based on traditions, institution and guesswork. They are not supported by evidence.
(iii) Positive Stage: Third stage of the law is the positive stage. In this stage explanations are based on observed facts and on logical reasoning.
Q.2. What was Emile Durkheim’s prime concern in sociology?
Ans. Emile Durkheim’s prime concern in sociology was the study of social organisation. He stressed upon the importance of broadly shared-moral values and collective institutions. He emphasized on research method and use of statistics. Social fact was a key concept for him. His main fields of works were social fact, suicide, religion and social order.
Q.3. What is the Spencer’s view on the evolution of society?
Ans. Spencer’s theory of social evolution holds that all societies change from simple to complex through natural processes. This led him to oppose all forms of governmental control on social life. Because of the logical similarities with Darwin’s Theory of Evolution, Herbert Spencer’s views on evolution of societies became known as Social Darwinism.
Q.4. Distinguish between sociology and literature or journalism.
Ans. Sociology is different from literature or journalism.
(i) Poets and novelists also describe society, but they can take liberties with facts. What makes their writings (or works) attractive are. the flights of their fancy.
(ii) Like a writer or poet, a journalist does report on events occurring in society but the demand for meeting deadline leaves them with little time to double check their findings. They do not fell obliged to use scientific methods of data collection. The same subject matter can be seen from a variety of perspectives.
Q.5. In which circumstances or conditions the science of sociology was born in Europe?
Ans. (i) The science of sociology was born in the nineteenth century Europe Enlightenment Industrial Revolution and French Revolution (1789) initiated a process of thinking about society especially the results of revolutionary happenings.
(ii) Industrial Revolution (1740-1850) accelerated the process of urbanization. Urbanization in its turn created problems of housing and slum dwellings. Creation of industries resulted in conflicts between owners and factory workers.
(iii) French Revolution led Europeans to rethinking about the form of government and practice of democracy.
(iv) In short, we can say that in Europe changes were all around in economy, polity and community living. Sociology took birth in such a climate of industrialization, urbanization and capitalism.
Q.6. Name and define the sister discipline of sociology. In which circumstances it was born in the nineteenth century?
Ans. (i) The sister discipline of sociology is Anthropology.
(ii) Anthropology is defined as the scientific study of man. In its early days of origin it became the study of other cultures.
(iii) Anthropology took birth side by side with sociology in Europe in the nineteenth century. As a result of Industrial Revolution, societies of Europe came in contact with non-European cultures in Asia, Africa, America and in the island countries in the Pacific and the Caribbean. While scholars of sociology started studying their own societies (i.e. the European), anthropologists went to far-off places to study the primitive tribal communities as societies distinct from the Western societies.
