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NCERT Class 12 Psychology Chapter 1 Variations in Psychology Attributes
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Variations in Psychology Attributes
Chapter: 1
| Review Questions |
1. How do psychologists characterise and define intelligence?
Ans: Psychological notion of intelligence is quite different from the commonsensical notion of intelligence. If you watch an intelligent person, you are likely to see in her/him attributes like mental alertness, ready wit, quickness in learning, and ability to understand relationships. The Oxford Dictionary explains intelligence as the power of perceiving, learning, understanding, and knowing. Early intelligence theorists also used these attributes in defining intelligence. Alfred Binet was one of the first psychologists who worked on intelligence. He defined intelligence as the ability to judge well, understand well, and reason well. Wechsler, whose intelligence tests are most widely used, understood intelligence in terms of its functionality, i.e. its value for adaptation to environment. He defined it as the global and aggregate capacity of an individual to think rationally, act purposefully, and to deal effectively with her/his environment. Other psychologists, such as Gardner and Sternberg have suggested that an intelligent individual not only adapts to the environment, but also actively modifies or shapes it. You will be able to understand the concept of intelligence and how it has evolved, when processing approaches emphasise studying cognitive functions underlying intelligent behaviour.
some representative theories of these approaches are:
(i) Theory of Multiple Intelligences Howard Gardner proposed the theory of multiple intelligences. According to him, intelligence is not a single entity; rather distinct types of intelligences exist. Each of these intelligences are independent of each other. This means that, if a person exhibits one type of intelligence, it does not necessarily indicate being high or low on other types of intelligence. Gardner also put forth that different types of intelligences interact and work together to find a solution to a problem. Gardner studied extremely talented persons, who had shown exceptional abilities in their respective areas, and described eight types of intelligence.
(ii) Logical-Mathematical (an ability to think logically and critically, and solve problems): Persons high on this type of intelligence can think logically and critically. They engage in abstract reasoning, and can manipulate symbols to solve mathematical problems. Scientists and Nobel Prize winners are likely to be strong in this component.
(iii) Triarchic Theory of Intelligence: Robert Sternberg (1985) proposed the triarchic theory of intelligence. Sternberg views intelligence as “the ability to adapt, to shape and select the environment to accomplish one’s goals and those of one’s society and culture”. According to this theory, there are three basic types of intelligence: Componential.
(iv) Componential Intelligence: Componential or analytical intelligence is the analysis of information to solve problems. Persons high on this ability think analytically and critically and succeed in schools. This intelligence has three components, each serving a different function. First is the knowledge acquisition component, which is responsible for learning and acquisition of the ways of doing things. The second is the meta or a higher order component, which involves planning concerning what to do and how to do. The third is the performance component, which involves actually doing things.
2. To what extent is our intelligence the result of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture)? Discuss.
Ans: Heredity provides the potential and sets a range of growth whereas the environment facilitates the development of intelligence.
Heredity nature:
(a) Heritability Estimates: Heritability of intelligence, which refers to the proportion of variation in intelligence attributed to genetic factors, is estimated to be between 50% and 80%. This means that genetics play a substantial role, but they do not account for all the variability in intelligence.
Environment (Nurture):
(a) Prenatal Environment: Factors such as exposure to toxins, stress, and maternal health during pregnancy can impact cognitive development.
3. Explain briefly the multiple intelligences identified by Gardner.
Ans: Gardner proposed the theory of multiple intelligences. According to him, intelligence is not a single entity; rather distinct types of intelligences exist. Each of these intelligences are independent of each other. This means that, if a person exhibits one type of intelligence, it does not necessarily indicate being high or low on other types of intelligence. Gardner also put forth that different types of intelligences interact and work together to find a solution to a problem. Gardner studied extremely talented persons, who had shown exceptional abilities in their respective areas, and described eight types of intelligence.
These are as follows:
(i) Linguistic (an ability to produce and use language): It is the capacity to use language fluently and flexibly to express one’s thinking and understand others. Persons high on this intelligence are ‘word-smart’, i.e. they are sensitive to different shades of word meanings, are articulate, and can create linguistic images in their mind. Poets and writers are very strong in this component of intelligence.
(ii) Logical-Mathematical (an ability to think logically and critically, and solve problems): Persons high on this type of intelligence can think logically and critically. They engage in abstract reasoning, and can manipulate symbols to solve mathematical problems. Scientists and Nobel Prize winners are likely to be strong in this component.
(iii) Spatial (an ability to form visual images and patterns): It refers to the abilities involved in forming, using, and transforming mental images. The person high on this intelligence can easily represent the spatial world in the mind.
4. How does the triarchic theory help us to understand intelligence?
Ans: Triarchic Theory of Intelligence Robert Sternberg (1985) proposed the triarchic theory of intelligence. Sternberg views intelligence as “the ability to adapt, to shape and select the environment to accomplish one’s goals and those of one’s society and culture”. According to this theory, there are three basic types of intelligence: Componential, Experiential, and Contextual.
(i) Componential Intelligence: Componential or analytical intelligence is the analysis of information to solve problems. Persons high on this ability think analytically and critically and succeed in schools. This intelligence has three components, each serving a different function. First is the knowledge acquisition component, which is responsible for learning and acquisition of the ways of doing things. The second is the meta or a higher order component, which involves planning concerning what to do and how to do. The third is the performance component, which involves actually doing things.
(ii) Contextual Intelligence: Contextual or practical intelligence involves the ability to deal with environmental demands encountered on a daily basis. It may be called ‘street smartness’ or ‘business sense’. Persons high on this aspect easily adapt to their present environment or select a more favourable environment than the existing one, or modify the environment to fit their needs. Therefore, they turn out to be successful in life.
5. “Any intellectual activity involves the independent functioning of three neurological systems”. Explain with reference to the PASS model.
Ans: This model has been developed by J.P. Das, Jack Naglieri, and Kirby (1994). According to this model, intellectual activity involves the interdependent functioning of three neurological systems, called the functional units of brain. These units are responsible for arousal/attention, coding or processing, and planning respectively.
(i) Arousal/Attention: State of arousal is basic to any behaviour as it helps us in attending to stimuli. Arousal and attention enable a person to process information. An optimal level of arousal focuses our attention to the relevant aspects of a problem. Too much or too little arousal would interfere with attention. For instance, when you are told by your teacher about a test which s/he plans to hold, it would arouse you to attend the specific chapters. Arousal forces you to focus your attention on reading, learning and revising the contents of the chapters.
(ii) Simultaneous and Successive Processing: You can integrate the information into your knowledge system either simultaneously or successively. Simultaneous processing takes place when The results of assessment can be used to remedy cognitive deficits of children with learning problems. This model represents the information processing approach to intelligence.
6. Are there cultural differences in the conceptualisation of intelligence?
Ans: yes there are differences in the conceptualisation of intelligence.
7. What is IQ? How do psychologists classify people on the basis of their IQ scores?
Ans: IQ, or Intelligence Quotient, is a numerical measure of a person’s cognitive abilities relative to others in a population. It is derived from standardised tests designed to assess various aspects of intellectual functioning, including reasoning, problem-solving, abstract thinking, and comprehension of complex ideas.
Here’s how psychologists classify people based on their IQ scores:
Mean and Standard Deviation: IQ scores are standardised with a mean (average) score set to 100 and a standard deviation typically set to 15 or 16 points, depending on the specific IQ test. This means that the majority of scores fall within a range of approximately 85 to 115.
8. How can you differentiate between verbal and performance tests of intelligence?
Ans: The verbal scale measures are related to knowledge of the language; the formation of verbal concepts and information flow. The non-verbal scale assesses the capacity of reasoning and problem-solving based on visual analogies and matrices that rely on pattern completion.
9. All persons do not have the same intellectual capacity. How do individuals vary in their intellectual ability? Explain.
Ans: As all the persons have different physical appearance likewise all persons do not have the same intellectual capacity.
As all the persons have different physical appearance likewise all persons do not have the same intellectual capacity. Some are exceptionally bright and some are below average. There are two forms of variations in the intellectual ability of the individuals i.e. intellectual deficiency and intellectual giftedness.
10. Which of the two, IQ or EQ, do you think would be more related to success in life and why?
Ans: EQ has a greater impact on success than other factors. Some people say that your IQ can land you a job, but it is the lack of emotional intelligence and social intelligence in you that will get you fired. It is believed that your IQ accounts for only 20% of your success in life.
11. How is ‘aptitude’ different from ‘interest’ and ‘intelligence’? How is aptitude measured?
Ans: Aptitude: Aptitude refers to a natural ability or talent for a specific kind of activity or skill. It often indicates potential or suitability for learning or performing certain tasks. Aptitude can be seen as a combination of inherent abilities and the capacity to acquire new skills in a particular area. For example, someone might have a strong aptitude for mathematics or music.
Interest: Interest refers to the level of curiosity or desire someone has towards a particular subject or activity. It reflects personal preference and motivation rather than innate ability. Interest can influence how someone engages with and pursues activities, even if they may not have a high aptitude for it initially.
Intelligence: Intelligence is a broader concept that encompasses various cognitive abilities, including reasoning, problem-solving, abstract thinking, and learning from experience. It can be measured through IQ tests, which attempt to quantify a person’s cognitive abilities across different domains.
12. How is creativity related to intelligence?
Ans: One important debate in understanding the variations in creativity has been the relationship of creativity with intelligence.Let us take an example of two students in a class. Sunita is regarded by her teachers as an excellent student. She does her work on time, scores the highest grades in her class, listens to instructions with care, grasps quickly, reproduces accurately but she rarely comes out with ideas which are her own. Rita is another student who is just average in her studies and has not achieved high grades consistently. She prefers to learn on her own. She improvises new ways of helping her mother at home and comes up with new ways of doing her work and assignments. The former is considered to be more intelligent and the latter as more creative. Thus, a person who has the ability to learn faster and reproduce accurately may be considered intelligent more than creative unless s/he devises new ways of learning and doing. Terman, in the 1920s, found that persons with high IQ were not necessarily creative. At the same time, creative ideas could come from persons who did not have a very high IQ.
Other researches have shown that not even one of those identified as gifted, followed up throughout their adult life, had become well-known for creativity in some field. Researchers have also found that both high and low level of creativity can be found in highly intelligent children and also children of average intelligence. The same person, thus, can be creative as well as intelligent but it is not necessary that intelligent ones, in the conventional sense, must be creative. Intelligence, therefore, by itself does not ensure creativity.
