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NCERT Class 11 Sociology Chapter 9 Introducing Western Sociologists
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Introducing Western Sociologists
Chapter: 9
| PART – (II) UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY |
| EXERCISES |
1. Why is the Enlightenment important for the development of sociology?
Ans: The Enlightenment, also known as the Age of Reason, was an intellectual and cultural movement in the eighteenth century that emphasized reason over superstition and science over blind faith. The Enlightenment is important for the development of sociology because it helped in the development of secular, scientific and humanistic attitudes of mind during the late 17th and 18th centuries. The Enlightenment brought political modernization to the West, in terms of introducing democratic values and institutions and the creation of modern, liberal democracies. Sociology improves our understanding of society and increases the power of social action, capabilities, talents and limitations. It enables him to adjust himself to the environment. Knowledge of society, social groups, social institutions, associations, their functions etc.
2. How was the Industrial Revolution responsible for giving rise to sociology?
Ans: The Industrial Revolution transformed society by introducing rapid urbanization, technological advancements, and new social structures. Traditional agrarian lifestyles gave way to industrialized economies, leading to significant changes in work, family dynamics, and community life. The growth of industries, urban space, slums, and the modern form of government was a social consequence of these developments. As a result, the industrial revolution caused significant changes in society, and thus the need to understand it also grew and led to the emergence of sociology. During the Industrial Revolution, society changed so rapidly that the changes could not be ignored and became a field of interest to explain how and why the changes happened. The rapid social, economic, and technological changes brought about by industrialization led to a growing interest in understanding the complex dynamics of the changing society.
3. What are the various components of a mode of production?
Ans: A mode of production consists of two primary components:
(i) The forces of production refer to both the material worked on and the tools and techniques employed in production of economic goods. The relationships of production refer to the social relations arising in the process of production, especially between the owners and non-owners of the means of production. These include the means of production (tools, machinery, raw materials, land) and human labor. Together, they determine society’s capacity to produce goods and services.
(ii) Relations of Production: Relations of production refer to the power dynamics that exist within a society and are shaped by the organization of labor. These power relationships are not limited to the actual process of production, but encompass the distribution of the fruits of labor and the asymmetries of power between different social groups. These are the social relationships that arise from economic production, including ownership, control, and distribution of resources. They define class dynamics, such as the relationship between laborers and capitalists or landlords and tenants.
4. Why do classes come into conflict, according to Marx?
Ans: According to Marx, classes come into conflict due to the fundamental contradictions in the relations of production. In capitalist societies, the two main classes—the bourgeoisie (owners of production) and the proletariat (workers)—have opposing interests. With the change in modes of production, technology and social relations, these classes became antagonist to each other, thus resulting in class conflict. For instance, in a capitalist society, there is a conflict between the capitalists and the working class. The bourgeoisie seeks to maximize profit by exploiting the labor of the proletariat, paying them less than the value they produce. With the change in modes of production, technology and social relations, these classes became antagonist to each other, thus resulting in class conflict. For instance, in a capitalist society, there is a conflict between the capitalists and the working class. In such a society, both of them are in a direct opposition to each other and hence the class conflict arises between classes. This exploitation leads to class struggle, as the proletariat demands better wages and conditions, while the bourgeoisie strives to maintain their power and wealth. Marx believed that this conflict, driven by economic inequalities, would eventually lead to social change and revolution.
5. What are social facts? How do we recognise them?
Ans: Social facts are values, cultural norms, and social structures that transcend the individual and can exercise social control. Social facts include beliefs, values, norms, laws, religious doctrines, and even language—everything that can exert a controlling or influential force on how individuals act in society. Durkheim emphasized that social facts are not reducible to the intentions or behaviors of individual people. The French sociologist Emile Durkheim defined the term, and argued that the discipline of sociology should be understood as the empirical study of social facts. Examples of social facts include social roles, norms, laws, values, rituals, and customs. Violating social facts confirms their existence because people who act against social facts are typically sanctioned.
Social facts can be recognized by their ability to exert external influence over individuals, shaping their behavior in a way that reflects collective norms and values. They are observable through societal patterns and widespread practices, which exist independently of individual will. Hence social facts can be recognised through social behaviour, and the aggregate patterns of social behaviour.
6. What is the difference between ‘mechanical’ and ‘organic’ solidarity?
Ans: Here are the difference between mechanical and organic solidarity:
| Basic of differance | Mechanical’ solidarity | Organic’ solidarity |
| Meaning | Mechanical solidarity refers to cohesion within a society based on shared beliefs, lifestyles, and occupations. Durkheim calls this type of solidarity “mechanical” because he uses the analogy of a machine. If one part of a machine breaks, it can be replaced with the same part of another machine. | Organic solidarity is social cohesion based upon the dependence individuals have on each other in more advanced societies. It comes from the interdependence that arises from specialization of work and the complementarities between people—a development that occurs in “modern” and “industrial” societies. |
| Type of Society: | Tends to be collective and homogeneous. | Tends to be individualistic and heterogeneous. |
| Social Integration | Social integration is maintained through shared values, beliefs, and customs. | Social integration is maintained through functional interdependence and specialized roles. |
7. Show, with examples, how moral codes are indicators of social solidarity.
Ans: Moral codes act as shared guidelines that promote social solidarity by fostering common values and behaviors within a community. For instance, honesty strengthens trust among individuals, essential for societal cohesion. According to Durkheim, moral codes are indicators of social solidarity because society existed as a moral community above the individuals. Moral codes were codes of conduct that were collectively agreed upon. In traditional societies, moral codes like respecting elders unify generations, ensuring cultural continuity. Similarly, in modern settings, principles such as equality and fairness bind diverse groups by encouraging cooperation. Religious tenets like charity in Islam or compassion in Buddhism exemplify collective responsibility, enhancing social harmony. Example of social solidarity recounted by participants was a case of patients’ rights violations in which a health clinic had different queues for HIV and tuberculosis patients, which exposed HIV/AIDS patients to stigma.
8. What are the basic features of bureaucracy?
Ans: Bureaucracy, as described by Max Weber, is characterized by several key features:
(i) Hierarchy: A hierarchy is a system of organizing people into different ranks or levels of importance, for example in society or in a company. A structured system with clear levels of authority and supervision.
(ii) Rules and Regulations: Society rules and regulations are critical in defining the structure, norms, and behaviors acceptable within a given society. Standardized procedures and formalized rules that govern operations and ensure consistency.
(iii) Specialization: When specialization is applied to the societies studied by sociologists, it refers to the specialization of labor in which members of a society begin to perform only one type of work and exchange the products of their labors rather than each individual performing all the labors required to meet their needs. Division of labor where individuals perform specific tasks based on expertise.
(iv) Formal Communication: Formal communication is exchanging official information between two or more people within the same organization, by following predefined rules and using official channels of communication. Communication follows established channels, usually written.
(v) Merit-based Advancement: Meritocracy is a social system in which advancement in society is based on an individual’s capabilities and merits rather than on the basis of family, wealth, or social. Promotion is based on qualifications and performance rather than favoritism. These features aim to ensure efficiency, predictability, and fairness in organizational operations.
9. What is special or different about the kind of objectivity needed in social science?
Ans: The objectivity required in social science is unique because it involves understanding and analyzing human behavior, which is influenced by complex cultural, historical, and social factors. According Max Weber, it was important for sociologists to understand the subject matter of sociology in an objective manner as social interactions incorporated subjective human meanings, values, feelings, prejudices and ideals. Social scientists must avoid bias while considering the subjective experiences of individuals and groups. This type of objectivity doesn’t mean ignoring personal perspectives but rather being aware of them and striving to interpret social phenomena impartially while acknowledging the impact of social contexts. Social scientists were themselves a part of society. Therefore, the exercise of such objectivity is deemed to be unique.
10. Can you identify any ideas or theories which have led to the formation of social movements in India in recent times?
Ans: In recent years, several key ideas have shaped social movements in India. These include:
(i) Caste-based Movements: Caste movements refer to the rebellions of lower caste for the sole purpose of developing intolerance towards the existing caste system. The issue of caste discrimination and social justice continues to be a major driver of social movements in India. Movements led by marginalized communities, such as Dalits, OBCs, and tribals, have gained traction, demanding equal rights, access to resources, and an end to caste-based discrimination.
(ii) Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment: Movements focusing on women’s rights and gender equality have been gaining momentum, addressing issues such as sexual violence, dowry, child marriage, female foeticide, and unequal access to opportunities. Campaigns like Me Too, the fight for the abolition of triple talaq, and protests against rape cases, such as the Nirbhaya case, have spurred nationwide activism for women’s rights.
(iii) Environmental Movements: The environmental movement (often called the ecology movement) is a push to save nature from harmful practices and create sustainable ways of living. Concerns over environmental degradation, climate change, deforestation, and pollution have led to the rise of environmental movements. Organizations and communities have been rallying for sustainable development, conservation of natural resources, and cleaner energy. The Chipko Movement (forest conservation) and the Narmada Bachao Andolan (against the construction of dams) are historical examples, and more recent movements are advocating for better policies on air quality and water conservation.
(iv) Anti-Corruption Movements: The fight against corruption has been a major force behind social movements in recent years. The Indian anti-corruption movement, popularly known as Anna Andolan, was a series of demonstrations and protests across India that began in 2011 and was intended to establish strong legislation and enforcement against perceived endemic political corruption.
(v) LGBTQ + Rights: LGBT + rights are human rights that all lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and other people outside traditional sexuality and gender categories have. But in practice, these rights are often not protected to the same extent as the rights of straight and cisgender people.
11. Try to find out what Marx and Weber wrote about India.
Ans: (i) Karl Marx: Karl Marx was a German philosopher during the 19th century. He worked primarily in the realm of political philosophy and was a famous advocate for communism. He cowrote The Communist Manifesto and was the author of Das Kapital, which together formed the basis of Marxism He referred to the villages of India as “little communities”. He was of the opinion that India was a self sufficient group which had no contact with the outside world. India had its own institutions and beliefs that controlled the human behaviour. Marx also opposed the British rule in Indian society and was totally against it. He wrote many articles on India under the British Raj, in order to throw light upon his views. Karl Marx’s sociology is formed by his economic analysis of ruling class structures within capitalist societies. Sociology is the academic study of social behavior and societies. In Marx’s sociological theory, society is determined and structured by economic systems.
(ii) Max Weber: Max Weber (born April 21, 1864, Erfurt, Prussia [Germany]—died June 14, 1920, Munich, Germany) was a German sociologist and political economist best known for his thesis of the “Protestant ethic,” relating Protestantism to capitalism, and for his ideas on bureaucracy. He studied India under his works on the ‘Sociology of Religion’. Weber understood the Indian society as orthodox and suppressed, under the barriers of the caste system. Weber also recognized the complex social organization in India, including the caste system, and how it influenced social mobility and the structure of Indian society.
12. Can you think of reasons why we should study the work of thinkers who died long ago? What could be some reasons to not study them?
Ans: Studying the work of thinkers who died long ago because It helps in understanding the effect of their ideologies to know the present-day societies well. Some of the theories developed by ancient scholars are still relevant in present-day societies. These thinkers often tackled timeless questions about human nature, society, politics, and ethics, providing us with enduring perspectives that continue to shape our world. Their work can also inspire critical thinking, provoke debates, and offer frameworks for addressing current issues. Additionally, understanding past ideas helps us appreciate cultural and intellectual traditions that have influenced contemporary knowledge. For example, to understand the communist model and its failures, one needs to study the theories developed by Karl Marx on capitalism and communism.
However, there are reasons not to study them as well. Some of their ideas may be outdated or irrelevant to modern realities, especially if they are based on social or scientific understandings that have since been disproven or evolved. In some cases, the ideas of older thinkers may perpetuate biases or perspectives that are no longer acceptable, such as sexism, racism, or colonialism. Furthermore, an overemphasis on historical thinkers can sometimes hinder the development of new ideas, as it may lead to a focus on the past rather than engaging with contemporary thought. Thus, while their work is important, it should be studied critically, with an awareness of its limitations and relevance to the present. For instance the ideology of the Indian villages being self sufficient entity by the western scholars, was highly criticised by the Indian scholars like M.N. Srinivas, according to whom, the villages were connected with the outside world.
