NCERT Class 11 Psychology Chapter 2 Methods of Enquiry in Psychology

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NCERT Class 11 Psychology Chapter 2 Methods of Enquiry in Psychology

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Methods of Enquiry in Psychology

Chapter: 2

1. What are the goals of scientific enquiry?

Ans: The goals of scientific enquiry are as follows:

(i) Description: Descriptive Psychology is precisely such a system. It is a pre-empirical set of systematically related concepts designed to provide formal access to any fact or possible fact about human behavior. It is very important in a scientific enquiry to describe the behaviour or a phenomenon accurately in order to be able to deal with it.

(ii) Prediction: Scientific enquiry aims at the understanding of a particular behaviour in relationship to other behaviours or events. It tries to predict their occurrences under certain conditions with a margin of error. A theoretical prediction gives the expected results of an experiment or controlled observation in accordance with the logic of a particular theory.

(iii) Explanation: Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior, according to the American Psychological Association. It is the study of the mind, how it works, and how it affects behavior. Scientific enquiry is conducted to know the causal factors or determinants of behaviour and the or events. It tries to predict their occurrences under certain conditions with a margin of error.

(iv) Explanation: Scientific enquiry is conducted to know the causal factors or determinants of behaviour and the conditions where the behaviour does not occur.

(v) Improvement: Refining and expanding knowledge to better explain and solve real-world problems.

(vi) Application: Applying scientific knowledge to develop technologies, improve society, and address challenges such as health, the environment, and sustainability.

2. Describe the various steps involved in conducting a scientific enquiry.

Ans: The various steps involved in conducting a scientific enquiry are:

(i) Observation: Identifying a phenomenon or problem that requires investigation. research in which the experimenter passively observes the behavior of the participants without any attempt at intervention or manipulation of the behaviors being observed.

(ii) Questioning: Formulating a clear and focused research question. Socratic questioning involves a disciplined and thoughtful dialogue between two or more people. It is widely used in teaching and counseling to expose and unravel deeply held values and beliefs that frame and support what we think and say.

(iii) Hypothesis: A hypothesis (plural hypotheses) is a precise, testable statement of what the researchers predict will be the outcome of the study. Proposing a testable explanation or prediction.

(iv) Data Collection: The process of gathering and analyzing accurate data from various sources to find answers to research problems, trends and probabilities, etc., to evaluate possible outcomes is known as data collection. Gathering and recording relevant data during the experiment.

(v) Analysis: Analyzing the data to identify patterns or relationships. Statistical analysis in psychology involves collecting and analyzing data to discover patterns and trends. It is essentially the experimental process that involves the study design, sample group, variables, testing, and measurements or research interpretations.

3. Explain the nature of psychological data. 

Ans: The word Psychology has its origin from two Greek words ‘Psyche’ and ‘Logos’, ‘psyche’ means ‘soul’ and ‘logos’ means ‘study’. Thus literally, Psychology means ‘the study of soul’ or ‘science of soul’. Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. Behaviour includes all of our outward or overt actions and reactions, such as verbal and facial expressions and movements. It is affected by the physical or social context, the people involved, and the time of the behavior. Physiological data is capable of monitoring humans’ mental and physical status. It is dynamic and can vary over time, influenced by factors like age, health, activity levels, and environmental conditions. Physiological data is often collected through various instruments like sensors, monitors, and diagnostic tools. It plays a crucial role in understanding human health, diagnosing diseases, monitoring medical conditions, and advancing research in fields like medicine, biology, and neuroscience.

4. How do experimental and control groups differ? Explain with the help of an example. 

Ans: Experimental and control groups are two essential components in scientific experiments, and they differ primarily in the conditions they experience during the study.

(i) Experimenta: An experiment involves the manipulation of an independent variable, the measurement of a dependent variable, and the exposure of various participants to one or more of the conditions being studied. Random selection of participants and their random assignment to conditions also are necessary in experiments. Experimental psychologists use scientific methods to collect data and perform research. Often, their work builds, one study at a time, to a larger finding or conclusion. Some researchers have devoted their entire career to answering one complex research question.

Example: (i) The experimental group would receive the drug.

(ii) Control groups: A control group is a group in the experiment which a variable is not being tested, such as a test subject that does not receive any treatment. Control groups serve as important benchmarks to compare the results of the experimental group, or the group that is being experimented on. They also closely resemble the participants who are in the experimental group or the individuals who receive the treatment.

Example: The control group would receive a placebo (no drug). By comparing the blood pressure changes between the two groups, researchers can evaluate the drug’s effect.

5. A researcher is studying the relationship between speed of cycling and the presence of people. Formulate a relevant hypothesis and identify the independent and dependent variables. 

Ans: Hypothesis: “The presence of people on the cycling path reduces the speed of cycling.”

(i) Independent Variable: An interdependent variable is a variable that is closely connected to and influenced by other variables within a system, where changes in one variable can affect the behavior of other related variables. The independent variable (IV) in psychology is the characteristic of an experiment that is manipulated or changed by researchers, not by other variables in the experiment. 

(ii) Dependent Variable: Dependent variables depend on other variables. For example, if someone was studying the effects of pollution on asthma, the incidence of asthma would be the dependent variable. In an experiment looking at how sleep affects test performance, for instance, the dependent variable would be test performance.

6. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of experimental method as a method of enquiry. 

Ans: Strengths:

(i) Control: Control is a person’s ability or perception of their ability to affect themselves, others, their conditions, their environment or some other circumstance. The experimental method allows researchers to control variables, isolating the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable, which enhances the reliability of results. Control over oneself or others can extend to the regulation of emotions, thoughts, actions, impulses, memory, attention or experiences.

(ii) Replication: Replication in psychology is a way to test an existing experiment result in order to reproduce similar results using similar conditions and methods. Experiments can be repeated to verify results, improving the robustness of findings. Replicates Example: Testing a new drug’s effect on blood pressure in separate groups on different days.

(iii) Causality: Causality is an influence by which one event, process, state, or object (a cause) contributes to the production of another event, process, state, or object (an effect) where the cause is at least partly responsible for the effect, and the effect is at least partly dependent on the cause. It enables researchers to establish cause-and-effect relationships, rather than mere correlations.

(iv) Precision: Precision is a synonym for reliability and variable error. The validity of a measurement instrument or psychological test is established through experiment or correlation with behavior. With controlled settings, experimental methods can provide precise measurements and accurate data.

Weaknesses:

(i) Artificiality: Artificialism refers to the belief that environmental characteristics can be attributed to human actions or interventions. Laboratory settings may not reflect real-world conditions, limiting the generalizability of results. Ethical Constraints: Some experiments may not be ethically feasible, such as manipulating harmful conditions or treatments on humans or animals. 

(ii) Complexity: Psychological complexity refers to the depth and intricacy of a character’s thoughts, feelings, motivations, and behaviors. This concept is crucial in literature as it allows for nuanced character development and realism, making characters more relatable and compelling. Controlling all variables can be challenging, especially in field experiments, leading to potential confounding factors.

(iii) Limited Scope: Experiments often focus on specific variables, and may not capture the broader context or complex interactions present in real-life situations.

7. Dr. Krishnan is going to observe and record children’s play behaviour at a nursery school without attempting to influence or control the behaviour. Which method of research is involved? Explain the process and discuss its merits and demerits. 

Ans: Dr. Krishnan is using naturalistic observation to study children’s play behavior in a nursery school. This method involves observing and recording the children’s actions without any manipulation or control, ensuring that their behavior remains natural. It provides insights into real-world behavior but may face challenges like observer bias and lack of control. The children will not be aware that they are being observed. Later, she will record her observations in a file. She will analyse and conclude it and then try to match her conclusion with the hypothesis.

Merits of non-participant observation method:

(i) Natural Behavior: Natural behavior refers to the actions and reactions of individuals that occur spontaneously and authentically, reflecting their true emotions and personality without pretense. Since the researcher does not intervene, the children’s behavior is likely to be more natural and authentic.

(ii) No Artificial Influence: There is no experimental manipulation, which eliminates the risk of bias or distortion introduced by external variables.

(iii) No Artificial Influence: Psychology is the study of mental processes and behavior of individuals. There is no experimental manipulation, which eliminates the risk of bias or distortion introduced by external variables.

Demerits of non-participant observation method:

(i) Lack of Control: Since the researcher does not control or manipulate any variables, it can be difficult to determine the cause of certain behaviors.

(ii) Observer Bias: Observer bias refers to the phenomenon where the observer’s knowledge of the treatment can influence their observations, either consciously or unconsciously. The researcher may unintentionally influence the observations based on their expectations or perceptions.

8. Give two examples of the situations where survey method can be used. What are the limitations of this method?

Ans: Two examples of the situations where survey method can be used are:

(i) Market Research: Marketing research is the systematic gathering, recording, and analysis of data about customers, competitors, and the effectiveness of marketing programs. A company wants to understand customer preferences for a new product. A survey can be conducted to gather data on customer opinions, buying habits, and product feedback.

(ii) Health Research: Health psychology is the practice of helping motivate people to make health-conscious decisions like not smoking, eating the right foods, and exercising more to prevent illness. Researchers want to study the prevalence of a specific health condition in a population. A survey can be used to collect data on symptoms, lifestyle factors, and medical history from a large sample of individuals.

9. Differentiate between an interview and a questionnaire.

Ans: 

10. Explain the characteristics of a standardised test. 

Ans: The characteristics of standardised test are as follows:

(i) Validity: Validity refers to the extent to which a test, tool, or method measures what it claims to measure. It ensures the accuracy and relevance of results for the intended purpose, making findings meaningful and applicable.

(ii) Reliability: Reliability refers to the consistency of a measurement tool or test. It indicates the extent to which the test produces stable and repeatable results over time, across different situations, or with various raters.

(iii) Norms: Norms refer to established standards or average scores derived from a large group’s performance on a test. These benchmarks help interpret individual test scores by comparing them to the group’s performance, enabling psychologists to assess whether a score is typical, above average, or below average.

11. Describe the limitations of psychological enquiry.

Ans: Psychological enquiry, while valuable, has limitations:

(i) Complexity of Behavior: Complex behaviors are actions that require the involvement of many decisions or events performed simultaneously or in succession. Human behavior is influenced by numerous variables, making it challenging to isolate and study specific factors.

(ii) Subjectivity: Subjectivity is the understanding that everyone has their own perspective and beliefs, which can be communicated and influenced by their context and interactions with others. Personal biases of researchers or participants can affect the validity of findings.

(iii) Ethical Constraints: Ethical considerations may limit what is explicitly spelled out in terms of powers, rights, duties, responsibilities, etc., or may even cause the one who has ethical considerations to take on greater responsibilities than what is legally required of them. Certain experiments or methods may not be ethical, limiting the scope of research.

(iv) Cultural Bias: Cultural bias refers to the tendency of psychological research, theories, and practices to favor certain cultural groups or values over others. Findings may not be universally applicable, as they often reflect cultural norms of the studied group.

(v) Generalizability: Very simply, generalizability is a measure of how useful the results of a study are for a broader group of people or situations. Results from small, controlled studies may not always apply to broader populations or real-world settings.

12. What are the ethical guidelines that a psychologist needs to follow while conducting a psychological enquiry?

Ans: Some of the important aspects of these ethical principles are described as follows:

(i) Voluntary Participation: This principle states that the persons on whom you want to conduct the study should have the choice to decide whether to participate or not to participate in the study. The participants should have the freedom to decide about their participation without any coercion or excessive inducement, and the freedom to withdraw from the research without penalty, once it has begun.

(ii) Informed Consent: It is essential that the participants in a study should understand what will happen to them during the study. The principle of informed consent states that potential participants must receive this information before data from them are collected, so that they make an informed decision about participation in the study. 

(iii) Debriefing: Once the study is over, the participants are provided with necessary information to complete their understanding of research. This is particularly important if deception has been used in the study. Debriefing ensures that participants leave the study in the same physical and mental state as when they entered.

(iv) Sharing the Results of the Study: In psychological research, after collecting information from the participants, we come back to our places of work, analyse the data and draw conclusions. It is obligatory for the researcher to go back to the participants and share the results of the study with them. 

(v) Confidentiality of Data Source: The participants in a study have the right to privacy. The researcher must safeguard their privacy by keeping the information provided by them in strict confidence. The information should only be used for research purposes and, in no circumstances, it should be passed on to other interested parties. The most effective way of protecting the confidentiality of participants is not to record their identities.