Philosophical Foundation of Education Unit 4 Western Schools of Philosophy & their Influences in Education

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Philosophical Foundation of Education Unit 4 Western Schools of Philosophy & their Influences in Education

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Western Schools of Philosophy & their Influences in Education

PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION

1. From what sources the word ‘idealism’ is derived?

Ans: The word ‘idealism’ is derived from two distinct sources ‘ideals’ or ‘ideas.’

2. According to idealism ‘mind and soul’ rather than ‘matter and body’ are more important. Is it true or false?

Ans: It is true.

3. Who is the father of Idealism?

Ans: Plato is the father of Idealism.

4. What is the name of the Plato’s book?

Ans: The name of the Plato’s book is “The Republic.”

5. Give a proper definition of Idealism.

Ans: According to Ross, “Mind or spirit is the essential world stuff, that the true reality is of a mental character.”

6. What is Idealism?

Ans: Idealism is one of the oldest of thought in the world of philosophy originating in human nature itself. 

7. Mention the main principles of idealism.

Ans: Ultimate reality is spiritual is the main principles of idealism.

8. Idealistic education aims at _________. (Fill in the blanks)

Ans: Development of integrated and ideal personality.

9. Idealism is a philosophy of ________ and _________. (Fill in the blanks)

Ans: Ideas and ideals. 

10. “Regarding discipline, idealism are not in favor of giving free discipline.” – Is it true or false?

Ans: It is true.

11. Mention a fundamental postulates of Idealism.

Ans: The first postulate of Idealism is that ‘spiritual’ and ‘mental’ nature is reality. Spiritual reality is the ultimate reality.

12. Regarding Idealism, what does the source ‘idea’ means? 

Ans: ‘Idea’ means true and testified knowledge.

13. Mention a characteristic of Idealism. 

Ans: The basic element of reality to the idealist is mind or spirit and depends upon its operations. 

14. Mention the main principles of Idealism.

Ans: “Ultimate reality is mental or spiritual in nature” is the main principles of Idealism. 

15. “Idealism is a system that emphasizes the prominent importance of mind, soul of spirit.” Is it true or false?

Ans: It is true.

16. What is the important aim of education, regarding Idealism? 

Ans: According to Idealism, the most important aim of education is the development of human personality.

17. “The aim of education is the highest potentialities of the self.” – Who said this? 

Ans: Ross said this.

18. What is self-realisation, according to Idealism? 

Ans: Self-realisation means knowing and realising ownself i.e. one’s own nature. This self is Brahma. Through this realisation, man can find harmony between the self and God.

19. Self realisation and _________ are very important in idealism. (Fill in the blanks) 

Ans: Self-education.

20. Froebel, developed the methodology of play which is known as _________. (Fill in the blanks)

Ans: Kindergarten.

21. According to idealism, teacher should be a ________ man. (Fill in the blanks) 

Ans: Self-realised.

22. Who are the chief exponent of naturalism philosophy?

Ans: Rousseau, Voltaire and Montesquieu are the chief exponent of naturalism philosophy.

23. In which century naturalism philosophy was developed? 

Ans: In 18th century naturalism philosophy was developed.

24. Write a characteristics of naturalism.

Ans: Naturalism believes in empirical and experimental knowledge, not spiritual knowledge is the characteristics of naturalism.

25. _________ is the oldest philosophy in the Western World.

Ans: Naturalism.

26. In education, what is the greatest slogan of naturalism?

Ans: “Follow Nature” is the greatest slogan of naturalism.

27. Write a principle of naturalism. 

Ans: Naturalist believe in the principle of uniformity of nature. 

28. Give a definition of naturalism.

Ans: According to Thomas and Lang, “Naturalism as opposed to idealism subordinate mind to matter and holds that ultimate reality as material and not spiritual.”

29. What type of discipline advocated naturalism philosophy?

Ans: The principle of emancipationist of discipline advocated naturalism philosophy.

30. According to naturalism, what is the aim of education? 

Ans: The aim of education, according to naturalism is self-realisation and self expression.

31. The naturalists do not advocate any fixed curriculum. – Is it true or false?

Ans: It is true.

32. Write a qualities of a naturalistic teacher. 

Ans: The naturalist teacher is the observer and facilitator of the child’s development rather than a giver of information, ideas, ideals, and moulder of character.

33. “Naturalism with its slogan” Back to Nature is the oldest philosophy is the western world. Is it true of false?

Ans: True.

34. Naturalism is a philosophy of _________. (Fill in the blanks)

Ans: Nature.

35. Naturalism regards nature as the ________ reality. (Fill in the blanks)

Ans: ultimate.

36. According to naturalism, there is no __________. or (Fill in the blanks)

Ans: God or spirit.

37. Write the name of the book written by Rousseau.

Ans: ‘Emile’ the name of the book written by Rousseau.

38. Choose the right response in the following list of principles of Realism:

(a) The real world is true.

(b) Senses are the gateways of knowledge.

(c) Opposition of Idealism.

(d) Man is supreme matter.

Ans: (c) Opposition of Idealism.

39. Characteristics of Realistic education are given below. Let the correct response as it is and strike the rest.

(a) Based on science.

(b) Emphasis on past life. 

(c) Full freedom to the child.

Ans: (a) Based on science. 

40. Humanistic Realism advocated by –

(a) Milton.

(b) Bacon.

(c) Ratke.

(d) Locke.

Ans: (a) Milton.

41. Sense Realism are advocated by –

(a) Mulcaster.

(b) Rebellias.

(c) Irasmus. 

(d) Comenius.

Ans: (a) Mulcaster.

42. Social Realism advocated by –

(a) Lord Montaigne.

(b) Rebellias.

(c) Irasmus.

(d) Comenius.

Ans: (a) Lord Montaigne.

43. Santayana was a _________.

(a) Critical realist.

(b) Social realist.

(c) Neo-realist.

(d) Sense-realist.

Ans: (a) Critical realist.

44. Study of ancient literature was emphasized by _________.

(a) Sense realists.

(b) Social realists.

(c) Neo realists.

(d) Humanistic realists.

Ans: (d) Humanistic realists. 

45. Lord Mahavira gave his first sermon in _________.

(a) Pawapuri. 

(b) Rajgriha.

(c) Vaishali.

(d) Shravasti.

Ans: (b) Rajgriha.

46. According to Aristotle the bad type of government is _________.

(a) Aristocracy.

(b) Monarchy.

(c) Constitutional government.

(d) Democracy.

Ans: (d) Democracy.

47. What is Realism?

Ans: Etymologically Realism means ‘About thing” or ‘concerning some object.’

48. “Realism is the reinforcement of our common acceptance of this world as it appears to us”. – Who said this? 

Ans: Butler said this.

49. Write a forms of Realism.

Ans: Social realism is a forms of Realism.

50. Mention a fundamental principles of Realism. 

Ans: The fundamental principles of Realism is as follows:

Phenomenal world is True: Realists believe in the truth and reality of the matter. To them, there is no world beyond this. 

51. Give a suitable definition of Realism.

Ans: According to Butler, “Realism is the reinforcement of our common acceptance of this world as it appears to us.”

52. Define Neorealism.

Ans: According to Rusk, “The positive contribution of neo-realism is its acceptance of the methods and results of modern developments in physics.”

53. Mention a characteristics of Realistic Education.

Ans: Based on Science: The supporters of Realism emphasised the importance of useful and purposive education. The emphasis on scientific education is the first characteristics of realistic education.

54. “Bacon, the famous Realist introduced the inductive method in the process of education”. Is it true or false?

Ans: It is true.

55. Mention a demerits of Realism.

Ans: Realism regards senses are the gateways of knowledge. As such, we get knowledge only after contacts with objects. But how does illusion occur? and how do we get faulty knowledge? – Is the demerits of Realism.

56. Mention the methods of teaching of realistic philosophy? 

Ans: Travelling, observation, touring, experimentation, inductive method etc. are the methods of teaching of realistic philosophy.

57. Write a merits of realistic philosophy. 

Ans: Realism emphasizes that education should be practical and utilitarian. Now impractical and useless education has come to be regarded as waste to time, energy and resources – is a merits of realistic philosophy.

58. “Schools are true foregoing places of men.”- Who said this? 

Ans: Comenius said this.

59. Name the chief protagonists of Realism.

Ans: Irasmus, Rebellions are the name of the chief protagonists of Realism.

60. “The end of education and training is to help nature to her perfection.” –Who said the statement. 

Ans: Mulcaster said the statement.

61. Name the educationist who written the book “Some thoughts Concerning Education.”

Ans: The name of the educationist who written the book “Some thoughts Concerning Education” is John Locke.

62. Mention the role of a teacher regarding realistic philosophy. 

Ans: The teacher according to Realists, is expected to have full knowledge of the content and the needs of children.

63. What is the derivative meaning of pragmatism?

Ans: The term ‘pragmatism’ is derived from a French word ‘Pragma’ and Greek word ‘Pragmat’ which means work, practice, action or activity. There are another Greek word “Pragmatikos” which means practice, behaviour, experiments or activity.

64. Give a suitable definition of pragmatism. 

Ans: According to Will Durant, “Pragmatism is the doctrine that truth is the practical efficiency of an idea.”

65. What is the basic concept of pragmatism? 

Ans: The basic concept of pragmatism is action. “Action” is the key note of this philosophy. 

66. In which state the idea of pragmatism philosophy emerged? 

Ans: United States in the first quarter of the 20th century emerged the idea of pragmatism philosophy.

67. Write a propounder of pragmatism philosophy.

Ans: C. S. Pierce is the propounder of pragmatism philosophy.

68. Who is the father of pragmatism?

Ans: C. S. Pierce is the father of pragmatism.

69. From which words pragmatism derived?

Ans: The term “pragmatism” is derived from a French word “Pragma” and Greek word.”pragmat” which means work, practice, action or activity.

70. What is the meaning of Greek word “Pragmat”? 

Ans: The meaning of Greek word “Pragmat” is work, practise, action or activity.

71. What is the meaning of Greek word “Pragmatikos?” 

Ans: The Greek word “Pragmatikos” means practice, behaviour experiments or activity.

72. What do you mean by pragmatism?

Ans: Etymologically or literally, the word pragmatism is derived from French word ‘pragma’ and Greek word “pragmat” both of which mean action and activity. It is a dynamic, practical philosophy of life which believes that reality is practical and is not theoretical, consisting of action.

73. What is the meaning of French word a “Pragma”?

Ans: The meaning of French word a ‘pragma’ is action and activity.

74. Name the school established by John Dewey on the basis of pragmatic philosophy.

Ans: The name of school established by John Dewey on the basis of pragmatic philosophy is “Laboratory School” in Chicago in 1896.

75. Write a characteristics of pragmatism? 

Ans: “Pragmatism is a humanistic philosophy” – is a characteristic of pragmatism.

76. Write the principle of pragmatism. 

Ans: The principle of pragmatism is:

Importance of Activity: Pragmatic philosophy gives importance on action. Actions gets priority over thought. Idea is due to action, nothing more. If ideas work, they are true or falsity of an idea depends on its practice.

77. In which century pragmatism philosophy emerged? 

Ans: In the 20th century pragmatism philosophy emerged.

78. In which year C. S. Pierce introduced the pragmatic philosophy?

Ans: In the year 1878, C. S. Pierce introduced the pragmatic philosophy.

SHORT TYPE QUESTION & ANSWERS

1. Give two definition of idealism. 

Ans: The two definition of idealism are as below:

According to Ross, “Mind or spirit is the essential world stuff, that the true reality is of a mental character. 

According to D. M. Dutta, “Idealism holds that the ultimate reality is spiritualism.”

2. What is the derivative meaning of idealism? 

Ans: The word ‘idealism’ is derived from two distinct sources ‘ideals’ or ‘ideas’. The word ‘Ideal’ stands for the perfected form of an ‘idea’ or ‘ideas’. We can say an “ideal character”. On the other hand, “Idea” means true and testified knowledge.

3. What is Idealism?

Ans: Idealism is one of the oldest of thought in the world of philosophy, originating in human nature itself. It is a philosophy of ideas and ideals. Actually, man has two facts-spiritual and material. When the emphasis is on the realisation of spiritual life, it is called Idealism. According to Idealism ‘mind’ and ‘soul’ rather than ‘matter’ and ‘body’ are more important. Plato, the father of Idealism, expressed his view about 400 years BC in his famous book, “The Republic.”

4. Write the two name of the philosophers of idealism? 

Ans: The two name of the philosophers of idealism are – Plato and Desecrates.

5. Mention two fundamental postulates of idealism.

Ans: The two fundamental postulates of idealism are as follows: 

(i) The first postulate of Idealism is that ‘spiritual’ and ‘mental’ nature is reality. Spiritual reality is the ultimate reality.

(ii) The idealists believe that as a spiritual being man exercises free will and is responsible personally for his actions.

6. Write two principles of idealism. 

Ans: The two principles of idealism are as follows:

(i) Ultimate reality is mental or spiritual in nature: According to idealism true reality or ultimate reality is mental or spiritual. The material world is the manifestation of spirit. Again, matter is the shadow of spirit.

(ii) The material world is mortal and changing: According to idealism, material world is always changeable and mortal, but spirit is immortal, indestructible and permanent. The ultimate reality which consists values is eternal and unchanging.

7. Write two characteristics of Idealism. 

Ans: The two characteristics of Idealism are as follows:

(i) The basic element of reality to the idealist is mind or spirit and depends upon its operations.

(ii) Mind or spirit exists before and apart from matter. Spirit is the abiding reality. Matter no more than a passing phase or illusion.

8. Write two aims of education as advocated by idealism.

Ans: The two aims of education as advocated by idealism are mentioned below:

(i) Development of integrated and ideal personality: According to idealism, the most important aim of education both ancient and modern, western and eastern, is the development of human personality. It is the noblest work of God. Education must develop body, mind and spirit of the individual. The aim of education is to develop a natural man into an ideal man.

(ii) Universal education: Universal love and peace is the message of idealistic school to the world. The idealist believed that every man is equally the noblest work of God. According to idealism, every mind is a part of the absolute i.e. God.

9. What type of activities included in the curriculum according to idealism?

Ans: Idealistic philosophy aims at developing mental, intellectual and spiritual being basically. It aims at cognitive, affective and conative. development of the pupil.

Cognitive development includes various mental, intellectual, moral and spiritual activities. The teaching of language, literature, history, geography, mathematics and science will encourage intellectual activity. For moral education, teaching of religion, philosophy, ethics, stories of saints and sages of the past should be taught to the students. According to idealism, education of 3M’s-mathematics, morality and metaphysics is essential for congnitive development.

Affective development is mainly concerned with emotional, aesthetic, creative and cultural development. The subjects like art, painting, drawing, songs, dance, music etc. should be included in the curriculum for reinforcing their aesthetic development and impulses.

In a conative development, sound mind resides in a sound body. For physical development, the idealism prescribes the subjects like physiology, hygiene and different physical activities such as exercises, games, sports, yoga, meditation etc. For vocational and economic development the subjects like agriculture, trade, manufacturing, industrial arts and crafts may be included.

10. Mention two methods of teaching of idealism.

Ans: The two idealistic philosophy lays special stress on the following methods of teaching.

(i) Instruction: Instruction means educative instruction. It implies sympathetic guidance by the teacher. That is, the teacher must provide sympathetic guidance. It also implies a modification and a refinement of the child’s mind.

(ii) Activity: Another factor which idealism emphasises in the methods of teaching is activity or learning by doing. The child must learn through doing. This activity should be natural, continuous and progressive. This helps in moving towards self-realization, because it encourages the child to manifest his innate tendencies.

11. State briefly the nature of Discipline as advocated by idealism. 

Ans: Idealism are not in favour of giving free discipline. According to them, spiritual supremacy can only possible through the maintenance of discipline.

(i) Idealism believes in inner discipline.

(ii) Idealism advocates cultivation of higher values of life through moral and religious instruction.

(iii) Idealism accepts restraint of freedom.

(iv) It requires the teacher to present good examples because the child considers teacher to be an ideal person to be emulated by his pupils.

Idealism wants to keep the child under discipline whereas Naturalism provides unrestricted freedom to the child. Idealist believe that there can be no spiritual development of the child without discipline. Idealists attach importance to impressionistic discipline rather than impressionistic discipline.

12. Write two qualities of an ideal teacher according to idealist pattern of education. 

Ans: The two qualities of an ideal teacher according to idealist pattern of education are mentioned below-

(i) Idealism considers teacher as a guide for the child.

(ii) Teacher is an ideal person.

13. Write two qualities of an idealist pattern of education.

Ans: The two qualities of an idealist pattern of education are mentioned below:

(i) Idealism has given higher place to mental and spiritual than to physical world. Thus the aim of education is the perfection of the individual. In the realm of aims of education, Idealism has made signal contribution.

It is only this philosophy where in a detailed exposition of aims has been emphasised. 

(ii) Idealism holds that every human being must receive a chance to be educated and the goal of idealists is universal education. 

14. Write two weak points of idealistic philosophy.

Ans: The two weak points of idealistic philosophy are as:

(i) Idealism may be considered to be outmoded in the prevailing, scientific world-view. 

(ii) Idealistic concepts like ‘spirit’, ‘mind’, ‘soul’, ‘the customs’ have little relevance in classroom teaching.

15. Who are the chief exponent of naturalism philosophy? 

Ans: The chief exponent of naturalism are – Comte, Bacon, Hobbs, Butter etc.

16. In which century naturalism philosophy was developed? 

Ans: Naturalism as a philosophy of education was developed in the 18th century.

17. Write two characteristics of naturalism. 

Ans: The two characteristics of naturalism are as follows:

(i) Naturalism regards nature as the ultimate reality. 

(ii) Naturalism applies natural laws to the entire human experiences.

18. What is basic concern of naturalism philosophy? 

Ans: Naturalism is the oldest philosophy in the western world. It is the doctrine that separates nature from ‘God’, subordinate spirit to matter and sets up unchangeable from different from God as supreme.

19. Write two principles of naturalism as philosophy. 

Ans: The two principles of naturalism as philosophy as under:

(i) According to Naturalism, Nature is the final reality. This means everything flows from the womb of nature and flows back into it.

(ii) Mind exists because of brain and brain is essentially matter.

20. Give two definitions of naturalism.

Ans: According to Thomas and Lang, “Naturalism as opposed to idealism subordinates mind to matter and holds that ultimate reality as material and not spiritual.”

Dr. Prem Nath says that, “Naturalism is an attitude rather than a specific system of philosophy.”

21. What are the three fold meaning of naturalism?

Ans: There are three fold meaning of naturalism and these are as follows:

(i) Nature has a social signification: According to Rousseau, education should be based not on the forms of society, meaningless traditions of the school and ignorance of the childhood but on knowledge of the nature of man.

(ii) Nature has a psychological significance: Education should be imparted according to the ‘nature’ of the child. Nature means child’s natural dispositions. So, education should be according to the child’s natural abilities, interests, aptitude, instincts, and impulses.

(iii) Nature has a phenomenal-physical significance: Education should be imparted in a natural surrounding in a natural atmosphere. Rousseau says, nature is the best teacher and best education can be obtained from nature.

22. Write two principles of naturalistic education. 

Ans: The two principles of naturalism education are as follows:

(i) Natural setting: According to Naturalism, educational environment must be provide in natural surroundings. In the words of Rousseau, “Everything is good as it comes from the author of nature, everything degenerates in the hands of man.”

(ii) Child-centredness education: In naturalism the child is the hero in the drama of education. The child has the primary role where the teacher plays the secondary role. Freedom is given to their interest, choice, ability etc.

23. Write two ideas of different thinkers of naturalism on aims of education. 

Ans: According to Herbert Spencer, the aim of education is to enable the individual to lead a “complete life”. Education should help a person in –

(i) Self-preservation.

(ii) Securing the necessities of life and developing economic efficiency. 

(iii) Upbringing children and helping him in the maintenance of family life. 

(iv) Keeping up social and political relations. and

(v) Enjoyment of leisure and leading a life of pleasure. 

Biological naturalist G. B. Shaw says that the aim of education should be

(i) improvement of racial characteristics. and 

(ii) accelerating the pace of evolution.

24. Write the curriculum construction as given by naturalist Rousseau.

Ans: According to Rousseau, curriculum should be constructed according to the aptitudes of children and according to their physical and mental development. He has classified the curriculum according to the age of children. Accordingly, infancy-physical education, in childhood-training of sense and in adolescence subject education and moral education should be provided.

25. Write two educationist of naturalism that suggested sense education in curriculum.

Ans: The two educationist of naturalism that suggested sense education in curriculum are as- 

(a) Montessori. and 

(b) Froebel.

26. Mention some activities and subjects of naturalism curriculum.

Ans: In the later stage, the naturalists give prominence to the subject like Nature study, Agriculture, Gardening, Art crafts, Botany, Zoology, Geography, Geography and Astronomy etc.

According to Spencer, curriculum should be determined in the context of life activities which can help a person to lead a “Complete life.” These activities can be of five types such as –

27. What type of discipline advocated naturalism philosophy? 

Ans: Naturalistic discipline is completely based on the principle of emancipationist. The naturalistic philosophers have given utmost freedom to the child to do and learn whatever he likes. There is also no suppression and repression and the child is not allowed to suffer any sort of depression. Naturalist Herbert Spencer says, discipline should be by natural consequences of one’s action only. Rousseau’s views on complete freedom principle is also significant contribution of naturalistic philosophy.

28. Write two qualities of a naturalistic teacher. 

Ans: The two qualities of a naturalistic teacher are as mentioned below:

(i) The naturalist teacher is the observer and facilitator of the child’s development rather than a giver of information, ideas, ideals and moulder of characters.

(ii) The naturalist teacher should be lovable, sympathetic and affectionate. He is the friend, philosopher and guide.

29. Write two significant contribution of naturalism philosophy in education.

Ans: The two significant contribution of naturalism philosophy in education are as follows –

(i) The chief contribution of naturalism lies in freedom which is essential natural development and self-expression of children.

(ii) Child study movement has gathered momentum due to the naturalistic ideas and principles.

30. What is naturalism. Discuss the salient features of naturalism. 

Ans: Naturalism as a philosophical doctrine. Naturalism is also termed as materialism. According to this philosophy, the basis of the world is matter. Mind is also a form of matter or an element of matter or a synthesis of both.

According to Naturalism, only nature is everything. Naturalists believe that due to the advancement of human civilization and development of society, man has gone way from nature. It may be noted that naturalists do not believe in spiritual development. They deny the existence of any such things as the supremacy of God, immortality of soul and the freedom of will. To them there is nothing else than matter, which is ultimate reality and the ultimate truth.

Definitions of Naturalism philosophy: 

According to Rusk, “Naturalism is the philosophical position adopted by those who approach philosophy from purely scientific point of view.” 

According to Dr. Prem Nath, “Naturalism is an attitude rather than a specific system of philosophy. 

The salient features of Naturalism are mentioned below:

(i) Naturalism believes in empirical and experimental knowledge, not spiritual knowledge.

(ii) Naturalism applies natural laws to the entire human experiences. 

(iii) Naturalism regards nature as the ultimate reality.

(iv) Naturalism upholds belief in science and scientific knowledge .

(v) Naturalism interprets human life in terms of matter.

31. Give two suitable definitions of pragmatism. 

Ans: The two suitable definitions of pragmatism are:

(i) According to Will Durant, “Pragmatism is the doctrine that truth is the practical efficiency of an idea.”

(ii) According to Arnold Reid, “Pragmatism makes activity, engagement, commitment and encounter its central theme.”

32. What is pragmatism?

Ans: Etymologically or literally, the word pragmatism is derived from French word ‘pragma’ and Greek word ‘pragmat’ both of which mean action and activity. It is a dynamic, practical philosophy of life which believes that reality is practical and is not theoretical, consisting of action.

C. S. Pierce was the father of pragmatism. He introduced it into philosophy in 1878. Pragmatism is a philosophy of practical experience. It is a typical American philosophy originated from the soil of America. William Durant sums up, pragmatism as “the doctrine that truth is the practical efficiency of an idea.” American philosopher John Dewey, on the basis of this philosophical ideas, set up his “Laboratory School” in Chicago in 1896. His main aim was to give new direction to education to make it practical and experience-centred.

33. Write two characteristics of pragmatism. 

Ans: The two characteristics of pragmatism are as follows:

(i) This philosophy does not believe in eternal value.

(ii) This philosophy is pluralistic.

34. Write two principles of pragmatism. 

Ans: The two principles of pragmatism are:

(i) Importance of Activity: Pragmatic philosophy gives importance on action. Actions gets priority over thought. Idea is due to action, nothing more.

(ii) Changing Nature of Truth: Pragmatists do not believe in predetermined truth. According to them truth always changes according to time, place and situation.

35. Write two aims of education as advocated by pragmatism. 

Ans: The two aims of education as advocated by pragmatism are as follows:

(i) Creation of new values: Pragmatism does not concern itself with the ultimate or pre-planned aims in education. Aims must be revised with the changing times and needs.

(ii) Activity and Experience: Activity and experience is the central aspects of pragmatism. Everything is tested on the touch stone of experience. According to the pragmatists the experience is the greatest teacher. So, pragmatism is a work philosophy. The basis of all teaching is the activity of the child. Knowledge of truth can be obtained only through experience and experimentation.

36. Write two principles of curriculum construction of pragmatism. 

Ans: The two principles of curriculum construction of pragmatism are as follows:

(i) Principles of flexibility and dynamism: Pragmatism believes in change and they are always in favour of changing situation. According to pragmatism curriculum should be flexible and comprehensive. It should include different subjects to meet various changing needs of the individual and society.

(ii) Principle of utility: Practical utility is the only watch-word and the guiding principle of pragmatism. The greater the satisfaction of human needs, the greater is the utility of the object achieving such satisfaction.

37. Mention two methods of teaching of pragmatic philosophy. 

Ans: The two methods of teaching of pragmatic philosophy are as follows:

(i) Learning by doing: Learning always occurs as a result of movement and activity. The learner has to learn not from the teacher’s experience, but by his own experience and this experience cannot be replaced by any books, schools or any other institution. Infact, ‘Learning by doing, is the principle method of pragmatic education.

(ii) Project method: One of the most important methods of teaching of the pragmatism philosophy is project method. In this method, the learner is presented with a problem in the form of a project. The pupil tries to find solution by making his best effort.

38. Write two types of discipline as advocated by pragmatism philosophy. 

Ans: The two types of discipline as advocated by pragmatism philosophy are as mentioned below:

(i) Social discipline: Pragmatist believed that the child must be benefited from his social environment. According to pragmatist theory, discipline is primarily social and it emerges through active participation in group activity and purposeful activity.

(ii) Democratic discipline: Freedom is an important element in the pragmatist conception of discipline. It is assumed that the aim of education is to generate democratic qualities and for it most important is liberty.

39. What should be the role of teacher according to pragmatism? 

Ans: The teacher for the pragmatists, is a member of the learning group who serves in the capacity of help, guide and arranger of experiences. The teacher is not a dictator but only a leader of group activities. Teacher is the sympathetic guide and a counselor who educates the child to be self disciplined and active partisioner. He is director, not a dictator. He has to plan and organise the teaching-learning situation, provide learning experiences and opportunities for experimentation.

It is essential for a teacher to present a good model in his own behavior to create an atmosphere of cooperation and brotherhood. The chief function of the teacher is to create real life situation. He is a friend, philosopher and helper of the student. So, the teacher must aim at creating a desirable social environment and at evolving proper educational technique.

40. Write two merits of pragmatism philosophy. 

Ans: The two merits of pragmatism philosophy are as follows:

(i) Pragmatism advocates child-centred education where child’s needs, interests, abilities, attitudes etc. are given due importance. 

(ii) The widespread movement of pragmatism led to the introduction of broad-based, life-centered, community-centered, cor-related curriculum.

41. Write two shortcomings of pragmatism philosophy. 

Ans: The two shortcomings of pragmatism philosophy are as mentioned below:

(i) Pragmatic philosophy has completely ignore the importance of spiritual development.

(ii) Pragmatism does not advocate any absolute standards. For measuring, our own social values, moral values and moral standard, there must be certain moral values and moral standard. In the absence of moral and eternal values, there is every livelihood of a vacuum being created in social organism.

LONG TYPE QUESTION & ANSWERS

1. Discuss The Characteristics of Western philosophy. 

Ans: The Characteristics of Western philosophy are as follows: 

(a) Greek philosophy started as a kind of naturalism as the distinction between mind and matter was not clearly recognized that time, now called Materialism by some philosophers with a scientific basis. But we must note that a naturalism that does not distinguish between mind and matter has an equal possibility of developing into materialism or spiritualism. In-dians and the Chinese worshipped elements of nature were worshipped too.

(b) The Greek Gods were natural Gods (like the early Indian Gods). The Water of Thales was considered God. Hercaclitus said that reality is change and identified it with fire, which he treated as God. Fire is one of the five elements of nature worshipped by the Vedic people, is a part of most Indian marriages.

(c) A naturalistic approach towards religion can be inward and out- ward. The Apollinian strand of Greek religion was outward looking, found its gods among the natural forces while the Orphic form was inward-looking found its gods in spiritual, mental factors. But the inwardness did not go further due to the use of reason in man, which is why Pythagoras glorified Mathematics. For the Ionians the creative principle of the uni-verse was water, air but for Pythagoras it was reason.

(d) In Plato the two thoughts blended and human reason became the judge of what is true, good and beautiful but retained some difference from inwardness. Aristotle made reason more outward and could retain inwardness mainly in God in whom reason became a pale thought. The solution to the problem of creation was mythological by Plato and arbi-trary by Aristotle who considered God the first mover.

(e) Plotinus interpreted the world as an overflowing of the being of the spirit, the One. But the extreme inwardness of medieval philosophy, when combined with the faith demanded by Christianity, depressed reason, and man lost confidence in himself and his reason. Reaction against this out-look started from the 16th century.

(f) As the Greek philosophical approach was made from man and society, the Greeks were able to lay the foundations of systematic social thought.

(g) The same reason made the Greeks attach great importance to the achievements of man and made them history-minded. It was real and important to them.

(h) So far as the Jewish factor of western thought goes, the first thing that strikes an eastern thinker is the extreme transcendence of the Jew-ish God. Aristotle’s God, after becoming the first mover, keeps aloof. He is to be approached by man through his own reason, but not in the sense of rationally and conceptually thinking about Him. But the Jewish God is not to be so approached. He is beyond reason and imagination, is a per-son who gives commandments to be obeyed without question. The simi-larity between God and man can only be moral. Man is made in the image of God, but man’s reason is not an image of God’s reason, and we do not know anything about God’s reason.

(i) The Jewish God does not reason, is Infinite Will. In this respect, the Jewish God is the opposite when compared to the Greek God.

(j) As far as Jewish ethics goes, God’s Will is good because it is his Will, and the human will is good because it obeys Gods commands. But what is God’s Will, nature is not determined by man. To judge the good-ness of God from the goodness of his commandments is a wrong ap-proach. Here also the Jewish, Greek thoughts are at variance. One thinks that the Jewish idea is that communication with God can only be through will or morality just as Reason allows you to communicate in Greek thought. But unlike the Greeks, who said that the rational part of man’s soul is immortal, the Jews did not state that Will part of a man’s soul is immortal. However, later philosophers held that ethically perfect soul would live eternally in heaven with God. Will is an important to the Jews as Reason is to the Greeks.

2. What is Idealism? What are the characteristics of idealism as a philosophy? 

Ans: Etymologically idealism arouse from ‘Idealism’. Idealism is born out of Plato’s ‘Theory of Ideas.” The word idealism may be described from the world ‘ideas’ or ‘ideals’. So, according to idealism higher values are much more significant in human life than anything else. Idealism idolises ‘Mind and self.” “Exalt the human personality”, is the slogan of idealism. Idealism considers the “human personality” as of “supreme value” and contends that it constitute the ‘noblest work’ of God. It attaches great significance to the study of man and his mind. Idealism is an old philosophy represented by persons like Tagore, Gandhi, Plato, Socrates, Kant.

The characteristics of Idealism as a philosophy are as follows: 

(i) Mind comes first. Mind is the basis of imagination of creation.

(ii) Mind is not lifeless. It consists of consciousness. There exists life in it. It cannot be mechanical. 

(iii) Mind has its independent existence. It is self-established and it is not an image of brain or body.

(iv) The action of mind is nature, because nature has no independent existence of its own.

(v) The world has been created with some purpose. Asthetic, ethics and logic interpret values.

(vi) There is some aim behind the creation of man. So the life of man cannot be without purpose and nor can it be mechanical.

(vii) Only physical science cannot reveal all the secrets of the world, because matter or energy cannot explain the universe fully.

(viii) Since the world is only a manifestation of mind, so there is a harmony between nature and man. Similarly intelligence of man and the process of the world are related.

3. What is idealism in education? What should be the aims of education as per this philosophy? 

Ans: Idealism is a system that emphasises the prominent importance of mind, soul of spirit. Idealism believes that reality is spiritual rather material in nature. On the other hand immorality is gained through education and wisdom. Education enlightens the total behavior of an individual and finally helps him in the realisation of self and realisation of the supreme.

Idealism has its impact on education since the days of yore. The philosophers and educators from the Vedic Rishis to Dayananda, Gandhi, Vivekananda, Aurobindo, Tagore etc. in India and Socrates, Plato, Tolstoy, Nunn, Pestalozzi, Froebel etc. in the west emphasised on spiritual development through education. According to idealism spiritual education is a must for realisation of the self.

The aim of education in ancient time was largely influence and inspired by the philosophy of Idealism. Some of important aims are as follows:

(i) Development of human personality: Idealism gives much importance on personality of individual and its development. It is the education which helped the individual to develop his personality to the fullest extent.

(ii) Universal education: Education should be universal because all human beings are equally the children of God. In an idealistic society no exception should be made in due of the children. It should be universal without any distinction of caste, creed, colour or social status.

(iii) Development of inventive and creative power: Man should not except his physical environment as unchangeable. He should rather change or modify the environment according to his need through his incentive and creative skill.

(iv) Realisation of truth, goodness and beauty: According to the idealistic education should enable the child to realise the truth, the good and the beauty. The education should try to helped the child to realise this three important external reality.

(v) Self-realisation: According to Idealism the aim of human lifes that man should recognise and realise his real nature.

(vi) Development of will power: Thoughts and ideas are instruments of human mind. A man with tremendous will power and profound enthusiasm can achieve success. So, education should develop will power in the students. 

(vii) Development of a moral sense: Man is essentially a moral being. The aim of education, according to idealism is to develop the child’s moral sense so that he can distinguish right and wrong and to lead a righteous life. Idealistic philosophy gives special importance on high sense of moral values-honesty, truthfulness, fearlessness, sincerity, punctuality, humility, purity and above all integrity of character.

(viii) Enrichment of cultural environment: Idealism regards education should help in the acquisition and enrichment of our national culture. Culture is a complex whole which includes all good ideas and cultural environment created by religion, morality, art, literature, mathematics, science, art, customs, traditions etc. Education should preserve this culture and transmit it to the students. The child has to be trained to achieve the spiritual ideals of the human race i.e. truth, goodness and truth in reality.

4. Discuss the contribution of idealism to – 

(A) Methods of teaching.

Ans: Methods of teaching: The aims of idealism are concrete and definite. But there is no specific method for achieving them. Socrates used question-answer method, Plato emphasised Discourse method and Aristotle advocated Inductive-Deductive method. Pestalozzi laid stress on education of the physical organs and allied activities. Herbert advocated Instruction method. Froebel insisted upon play-way method. Not only these, other idealists advocated many more methods namely – Discussion, Lecture, Talk in groups. 

However, some advocates of Idealism have provided certain teaching techniques. These are: 

(i) Questioning.

(ii) Discussing.

(iii) Lecture Method.

(iv) Single and group projects. and

(v) Imitation.

Lecture method is limited to the presentation of accurate facts and objective information by the teacher.

The idealistic philosophy lays special stress on the following methods of teaching-

(a) Instruction: Instruction means educative instruction. It implies sympathetic guidance by the teacher. That is, the teacher must provide sympathetic guidance. It also implies a modification and a refinement of the child’s mind. For this, the idealists believe that training of all kinds must be provided in the school.

(b) Activity: Another factor which idealism emphasises in the methods of teaching is activity or learning by doing. The child must learn through doing. This activity should be natural, continuous and progressive. This helps in moving towards self-realisation, because it encourages the child to manifest his innate tendencies. Therefore, idealist stress that instruction should be active.

(c) Experience: Experience has a significant place in the idealistic method of teaching. Every educator must base all his education on his own experience. The teacher’s talk is not to stuff his own experience in the educand’s mind but to provide the later some insight into his own experience. So, idealistic believe freedom to be essential part of education but it must be remembered that this freedom is not absolute, but controlled and guided.

(d) Lecture method: Idealism also prescribe, “lecture-method” in teaching. Along with it, questioning, discussing, single and group projects, imitation was also emphasised.

Thus, we reach the conclusion that the idealist do not regard any particular method to be superior. They also favour the use of the story-telling methods, the use of dramatics in teaching and also advocated the use of some maxims of teaching like proceed from simple to complex and concrete to abstract. For gathering knowledge, idealistic philosophy advocates the use of text-books also.

(B) Curriculum.

Ans: Curriculum: In Idealism, the curriculum are:

(i) It lays stress on the nature of the child. 

(ii) Curriculum should emphasise the higher values like truth.

(iii) Curriculum provides humanities, a place of prominence.

(iv) Ethics, religion and arts find an important place in the curriculum. This philosophy has a comprehensive influence in our curriculum construction.

According to idealism while constructing curriculum we should give importance on following points: 

(i) Curriculum should included those aspects of knowledge that help physical intellectual development on one hand and spiritual, moral development on the other hand. Mere physical and intellectual development should not be the soul aim of curriculum.

(ii) According to famous idealistic philosopher, Horne, curriculum should made thought centre instead of child centre. Thought is not to be made it is already present, it has to be discover. So, much subject should include which develop thinking power of the student.

(iii) Idealistic does not advocate the teaching of only one subject. According to it all subject has its own significance.

(iv) Idealistic philosophy of education at the same time does not ignore physical education, rather instinct of creation of sound mind and sound body. It is therefore essential to keep the body in proper working order through physical activities.

Idealistic scheme of education be shown in the following:

Thus their curriculum comprises of physical, intellectual and spiritual activities which will enable a man to develop fully. That is why an idealistic curriculum should reflect all the diverse experiences of the race.

(C) Role of Teacher.

Ans: Role of Teacher: The role of the teacher in idealistic philosophy is significant. According to this philosophy the educator and educand is the main parts of an organic plan. This philosophy regards its teacher as the preceptors or the gurus. ‘Gu’ means darkness of ignorance and the eye-opener. 

The teacher should be a self-realised man. He is the friend, philosopher and guide in the path of life of his students. The teacher is essential for advising, directing and even controlling the conduct of the pupils in order that he may be able to ensure the perfection of his personality. He should have a balanced and well-integrated personality. He must be an ideal person in order to exercise wholesome influences on the young ones. 

So, it is the teacher’s forceful personality, his effective methods, his sense of dedication to the work and child that make him exemplary. He must help his pupils to self-education and self-development. The educator inspires the educand to realize the ideals of truth, goodness and beauty, and guides him along the path to its realization.

The idealist teacher includes ‘guidance’, ‘control’ and ‘creating stimulating environment in order that he may be able to ensure the perfection of his personality.

Firstly, he can influence them by his pleasing personality i.e. by giving proper guidance.

Secondly, to check unnecessary movements on the part of the children i.e. encourage them to think for themselves.

Thirdly, to inspire the child to learn new things. Thus the teacher must be mature, completely aware of himself as well as of the world around him. 

He can guide the students in three ways:

(i) by the impact of personality.

(ii) by encouraging original thinking.

(iii) by developing scientific reasoning.

In the concluding part, we can say that–

(i) Idealism considers teacher as a guide for the child.

(ii) Teacher is an ideal person.

(iii) Teacher is the main source of spiritual development.

(iv) Teacher is the true Yogi, a hero of highest order. 

(v) Teacher as a friend, philosopher and guide.

5. Discuss the impact of idealism on educational thought and practice.

Ans: Idealism is the oldest school of philosophy, the father of all philosophies. It has made a significant contribution to educational though and its foundation is laid very deeply in the course of the centuries, idealism has been a source of inspiration since the very beginning of our civilization. The following points may be noted concerning the influence of idealism in the field of education.

(i) Idealism has given higher place to mental and spiritual than to physical world. Thus the aim of education is the perfection of the individual.

(ii) Idealism requires that the past culture must be given its due place and accordingly education aims at providing the means of acquainting the student with great achievements in literatures, arts, mathematics and science.

(iii) Idealism holds that every human being must receive a chance to be educated and the goal of idealists is universal education.

(iv) The most important element in social culture, according to idealism, is moral character. Education, therefore, is to develop character of the students. Many educationists also stress religious education for character training. 

(v) Emphasis of idealists on personality development has resulted in a fresh look at human relations in teaching.

(vi) Idealistic philosophy provides clear and direct guidelines for the aims of education, curricula, teacher’s role and method of teaching.

(vii) Education according to the idealist pattern is ideal centered. Hence the personality of the teacher becomes the single most important influence in the pupils learning experiences.

(viii) Idealism has been supported by many great philosophers both of the cast and the west. Many educational schemes and plans have had their beginning in Idealism.

6. Critically evaluate idealism philosophy of education. 

Ans: Idealism is the oldest school of philosophy, the father of all philosophies. It has made a significant contribution to educational thought and its foundation is laid very deeply in the course of the centuries. Today, a number of points of criticism have been raised against this philosophy. Idealistic education was considered bookish and lacking relevance. Idealism has often linked with traditional religion. The weakening of religion has led to the weakening of idealism as a philosophy. This philosophy is criticised on account of the following points:

(i) Idealism may be considered to be outmoded in the prevailing, scientific world-view. 

(ii) The common criticism regarding Idealism is that it is an abstract and vague doctrine. It avoids the present realities and prepares the child for the next world.

(iii) Idealistic concepts like ‘spirit’, ‘mind’, ‘soul’, ‘the customs’ have little relevance is classroom teaching.

(iv) Idealism is concerned with the ultimate end of life. It avoids the real problems day to day living.

(v) Idealism lays more emphasis of thinking and mental activities. This increases the importance of intellectualism unnecessarily.

(vi) Idealistic education gives more importance to teacher in relation to the child. Modern psychology emphasizes the prime and central importance of child.

(vii) Idealistic methods of teaching emphasises examining and rote memory. In modern education, these methods are given little importance.

(viii) Emphasis on gaining knowledge. School curricula becomes overloaded with absolute knowledge sometimes.

(ix) Idealistic scheme of education, by and large, pays less attention to physical, industrial, social and electronic environment of today.

(x) Too much emphasis on good manners, and modesty may be mistaken for diffidence.

In conclusion, we may say that idealistic philosophy of education stresses the exaltation of human personality through self-realization. It emphasises his higher values of life, at the same time, it does not disregard the present life of man.

Idealism has merits as well as demerits. In the present world of today which is full of stresses, strains, conflicts envies and material struggles, the need of idealistic education is greatly essential for peaceful living of human beings devoted to social good and national welfare. Idealism is the only philosophy which emphasises the essential nature of man and gives due importance to his mental, moral and spiritual capacities to attain complete self development and the development of society of which the ‘self’ is a part.

7. Highlight some merits and demerits of idealism philosophy. 

Ans: Some merits and demerits of idealism philosophy are as follows:

Merits of Idealism philosophy:

(i) Idealism has given higher place to mental and spiritual than to physical world. Thus the aim of education is the perfection of the individual.

(ii) Idealism holds that every human being must receive a chance to be educated and the goal of idealists is universal education.

(iii) Emphasis of idealists on personality development has resulted in a fresh look at human relations in teaching. 

(iv) Idealistic philosophy provides clear and direct guidelines for the aims in education, curricula, teacher’s role and method of teaching.

(v) Idealism has been supported by many great philosophers both of the east and the west. Many educational schemes and plans have had their beginning in Idealism.

Demerits or limitations of Idealism:

(i) Idealism may be considered to be outmoded in the prevailing scientific world view.

(ii) The common criticism regarding Idealism is that it is an abstract and vague doctrine. It avoids the present realities and prepares the child for the next world.

(iii) Idealism maintains that ideals and morals are eternal and fixed. It neglects ‘real possibilities, real ends, real moral life.’ 

(iv) It neglects psychological nature of the child who is inclined to activity than contemplation of spiritual things.

(v) This philosophy does not take into consideration of individual difference and special abilities of pupils.

8. Give a brief account of naturalistic aims of education.

Ans: Concerning the aims of education, naturalists adopt a biological and evolutionist attitude. Different philosophy and thinkers of naturalism have given us different ideas about the aims of education. Such as:

(i) To perfect the human machines: Naturalists regard the whole universe as a huge machine. Man is a part of this huge machine and is a complete machine in himself also.

(ii) Attainment of present and future happiness: Biological naturalism advocates the attainment of happiness of the individual. This should be in the present life as well as in the life of come. Education should cooperate in this process and bring it to success.

(iii) Preparation for the struggle of existence: Darwin believed in the principle of struggle for the existence and survival of the fittest. According to this principle man has evolved from the lower forms of animal life. Hence education should develop the capacities of the individual so that he comes out victorious in the struggle of life and existence in this world.

(iv) Adaptation to environment: New Lamarchinas also believe in the Darwinian theory but assert that a human being, unlike the other animals, has a power to adopt himself to the ever-changing environment. This is a natural capacity. Thus, the aim of education should be to strengthen this capacity of adaptation of the individual reinforcement by education will give the individual added capacity and efficiency to this task of adaptation.

(v) Improvement of Racial Gains: Some naturalists believe that the racial heritage of cultural and civilization achievements cannot be transferred from generation to generation by a mere natural process of inheritance.

(vi) Natural Development: Rousseau has emphatically declared that making the child physically healthy and strong and in view of the individual differences, education should develop the child according to his in born tendencies, interests, inclinations, aptitudes and capacities in a free environment.

9. Write in brief naturalism in education with reference to methods of teaching and discipline. 

Ans: Naturalist education is patio-centric. The child occupies the central place in it. The child in order to develop, should be left on its own. The society or the state should not interfere in his contact with nature.

Naturalists thinkers suggest the following two methods of education: 

(i) Positive Method: In this the education tries to inform the child about various subjects. This is the traditional method which the naturalists rejects as old fashioned and ineffective.

(ii) Negative Method: Concerning the negative method of education, Rousseau has commented, “I call a negative education one that tends to perfect the organs that are the instruments of knowledge before giving them the knowledge directly and that endeavours to prepare the way for reason by the proper exercise of the sense.” Hence negative education consists in training the child to use his sense organs and motor organs instead of filling his mind with bits and pieces of information.

The other methods of teaching advocated by naturalism are as:

(i) Learning through direct experiences: Naturalists are against the traditional chalk and talk method or direct teaching through lectures and text books. The naturalists advocated for learning through direct experience of things and learning by doing i.e. self-activity.

(ii) Heuristic method: Heuristic means to discover or to find. Naturalism emphasised heuristic method in the teaching of science and mathematics. The teacher will simply provide the situation and opportunities and the learner has to search and research after truth.

(iii) Play-way method: The naturalists have given a prominent place to the play way method. It is play which helps the child to express himself fully. Play is nature’s mode of education. So, the children should be educated in play-way method.

(iv) Self-government: The naturalists very clearly and psychologically have thought this concept of self government and entrusted the responsibility of children on themselves. 

Apart from these methods, naturalists also accept the educational tours, excursion, observation method, maxims like simple to complex, definite to indefinite, inductive to deductive etc.

Naturalism and Discipline: Naturalistic discipline is completely based on the principle of emancipationist. The naturalistic philosophers have given utmost freedom to the child to do and learn whatever he likes. There is no place for restriction, punishment, interference, curb and control for the child except that the child is allowed to suffer the natural consequences of his actions. There is also no supersession and repression and the child is not allowed to suffer any sort of depression. They are not in favour of external discipline.

Rousseau’s views on complete freedom principle is also significant contribution of naturalistic philosophy. Rousseau pleaded that whenever a child does wrong natural reaction is a proper punishment for him. If a child does any thing evil, nature will punish him and he will not repeat the work again. These is no need of external influence or outer control to discipline the child.

Herbert Spencer by his own Hedonistic theory supports the theory of Discipline by Natural consequences of Naturalistic school of thinking. Pleasure or pain are the twin teachers who will discipline the child for desirable and undesirable activities according to the consequences.

10. Explain the contribution of naturalism in the fields of curriculum.

Ans: The naturalists do not advocate any fixed of curriculum. The child is given no verbal lessons and are against bookish knowledge. Every child is expected to learn directly from nature through his personal experiences. Of course, naturalistic curriculum can be divided into two stages i.e. earlier stage and later stage. In the earlier stage, the naturalist prefer to give sense training which are the basic instruments of knowledge. Montessori schools through their “didactic apparatus” and Kindergarten schools through Froebels ‘gift and occupations’ give sensory education.

In the later stage, the naturalists give prominence to the subject like Nature study, Agriculture, Gardening, Art crafts, Botany, Zoology, Geography, Geography and Astronomy etc.

According to Spencer, curriculum should be determined in the context of life activities which can help a person to lead a “complete life.” These activities can be of five types such as –

In this way naturalists have advised to include the following in the curriculum. 

(i) Science dealing with nature will include physics, chemistry, botany etc. These branches of science will help children to be acquainted with nature.

(ii) Mathematics and language will be included as these help to acquire the subjects of science. 

(iii) History and social science will also help to realise the importance of modern knowledge in their present life.

(iv) Agriculture and carpentry will offer opportunity to the child to act them in freedom and will increase their power of observation. 

(v) Naturalists felt the importance of physical and health training for self protection.

(vi) Drawing have considered as the main technique of self-expression. Naturalists have include drawing as compulsory in the curriculum.

(vii) Arithmatic and geometry are suggested as these are helpful for development of reasoning power.

11. Discuss the role of teacher as per as naturalism. 

Ans: Rousseau thought the child as pure inherently. His natural development takes place only when he is allowed to develop freely without any hindrance or interference from outside.

According to naturalism, the teacher is an observer, a setter of stage, a provider of opportunity and a creator of condition under which the natural development of the child takes place. The naturalist teacher is the observer and facilitator of the child’s development rather than a giver of information, ideas, ideals and moulder of character. 

He is director and not a dictator. He has to provide suitable opportunities and create conditions which are conducive to the natural development rather than a given of information. He should understand the child his nature, tendencies, impulses, interests etc. He should encourage child to develop his own self-discovery. He should be patient and permissive, which arouses in the children the spirit of enquiry and motivates for self-learning. 

So, the naturalist teacher should be lovable, sympathetic and affectionate. He is the friend, philosopher and guide. He should supplies all favorable circumstances and opportunities for the natural development of the child. In short, the teacher must adopt his material to the interests and characteristics of his pupils.

12. Discuss the strong and weak points of naturalism in education.

Ans: The strong and weak points of naturalism in education are mentioned below:

(i) The chief contribution of naturalism lies in freedom which is essential natural development and self-expression of children. 

(ii) Child study movement has gathered momentum due to the naturalistic ideas and principles.

(iii) The child’s education should be made according to the natural development.

(iv) Paedo-centric education or child centric education is an important contribution of the naturalists in the field of education. Children should be treated as children and not as adults in miniatures.

(v) Naturalists consider the training of senses very important.

(vi) It stresses on spontaneous self activity or self-education. 

(vii) Emphasised on direct experience is an important contribution of naturalistic philosophy.

(viii) According to Naturalism, the instincts should be the main instrument of education.

Demerits of Naturalism:

(i) It is based on one sided philosophy as it is not possible to apply all the methods of natural environment in practical situations.

(ii) Naturalism completely ignores the spiritual aspect of the child. But for balanced development, both spiritual and material world is necessary.

(iii) Naturalism gives undue importance on the solution of present needs and problems of the child.

(iv) Naturalism provides unlimited freedom to the child. But it lead to create arbitrary behaviour without any consideration of others.

(v) The principle of discipline by natural consequences is quite unsuitable and very much harmful.

(vi) Naturalism emphasises individual development by ignoring society which is equally important.

(vii) Naturalism considers teacher as a mere guide and minimise the role of the teacher in the education process. 

(viii) Naturalism in its extreme from neglects books and bookish system of education. They insist only that type of education which is based on experiences. 

13. How far naturalism philosophy is practicable in the field of education. Justify. 

Ans: Naturalism has given an impetus to new psychological methods in education. New schools and new movements came into being due to impact of naturalism. Montessori school, Froebel’s Kindergarten, Tagore’s Shantiniketan, Gopabandhu’s open air Satyabadi school. A. S. Neill’s Summer Hill School are products of this movement. 

It has also influenced the psychologists like Standby Hall, Piaget who have contributed a lot to the child psychology. As a result of naturalism, now the educational curriculum and teaching methods are determined on the basis of a child’s interest and needs, emphasis is given for the use of senses, learning by experience, learning by doing and learning by play. This naturalism has done the job of encouraging.

Naturalism has greatly impact the modern educational theories and practices. It has given an impetus to new psychological methods in education. Child study movement has gathered momentum due to the naturalistic ideas and principles.

14. Discuss the contribution of naturalism philosophy on educational theory and practice. 

Ans: Rousseau, the outstanding philosopher educationist made tremendous contribution to the modern theory and practice and sowed the seeds of educational psychology. He was the intellectual progenitor of many modern thinkers. His contribution may be summed up in the following points viz-

(i) Rousseau regarded education as a natural process and not an artificial one. In his words “the process of education should consists in the spontaneous upfolding of the child’s capacities.”

(ii) Rousseau advocated that the states of development of the human child are distinct and they unfold characteristics traits and interests. Education should conform to the needs of the child at each stage of its growth.

(iii) Rousseau for the first time asserted that child is the main concern and focal point in education. In order that the child may live fully and perfect, parents and teachers should have love and sympathy for him and educate him properly.

(iv) As the fore runner of educational psychology, he asserted that education of the child should begin with a psychological insight into the capacities and innate tendencies of the child.

(v) Rousseau emphatically remarked about the importance of physical training of childrens for building up healthy bodies.

(vi) Education instead of being adult, monotonous process should be interesting and delightful. 

(vii) Things before words, objects before symbols. This should be the guiding principle of our educators of young children. Because personal observation and influence is of immense value.

(viii) Bookish knowledge is less important and gainful than knowledge derived from nature.

(ix) Needs of the present is more important than the needs of future which are uncertain. It is necessary to recognise the present needs of child’s nature.

(x) Learning by doing is to be followed in education. Parents should compel the child to learn from books and precepts.

15. Write some demerits of the philosophy of naturalism. 

Ans: Demerits of the philosophy of naturalism are as:

(i) One-sided and unsatisfying aims of education: Naturalism concentrates about natural environment and natural development by nature. Scholars hold that if the child is developed according to his nature in the lapse of nature only, the child will become unsocial with no feeling of social service or social good.

(ii) Emphasis on Present Needs: Naturalism lays stress on the solution of present needs and problems of an individual. It advocates no concern for spiritual values and the remote future. Actually life and education should have an ultimate goal.

(iii) Ignores Books: Naturalism emphasises that education of the child should be based on his activities and life experiences. But only activities and experiences cannot ensure the total development of the child’s personality. How can we leave those books which contain valuable knowledge and experiences of others forming the cultural treasure of humanity? No nation can afford to neglect or be indifferent to books. Natural activities as well as books all contribute their share in the development of total personality.

(iv) Undue emphasis on physical education: Naturalism lays too much emphasis on the development of the physique and the physical senses. It is for this reason that Rousseau advocates natural education for twelve years to be given to a child, only then moral education may be imparted. This is an unbalanced process of education.

(v) More importance to scientific subjects in curriculum: Naturalism emphasises scientific education. Herbert Spencer, a staunch naturalist has given prime importance to scientific subjects and secondary place to humanities in the curriculum. Infact, the curriculum should show a balance of the two categories of subjects as both are equally important and essential in the development of a child’s personality.

(vi) Unlimited freedom of child: Naturalism provides unrestricted freedom to the child to develop himself naturally. This may lead to self-assertion and stand in the way of self-realization. Self-assertion generally result in arbitrary behavior. Without any consideration of others. This is undesirable. Hence freedom should be enjoyed equally by all and not by a particular individual only. In this connection, the needs of society and social conditions must have also something to say and plan for the freedom of an individual.

16. Write the principles underlying of naturalistic education. 

Ans: The underlying principles of naturalism can be described as follows:

(i) Natural setting: According to naturalism, educational environment must be provide in natural surroundings. It is in this setting that proper development of the child can take place.

(ii) Child-centredness education: In naturalism the child is the hero in the drama of education. The child has the primary role where the teacher plays the secondary role. Freedom is given to their interest, choice, ability etc. The teacher should understand child psychology and guide the educand according to his needs and attitudes.

(iii) Follow nature: In naturalism, efforts are made to develop the personality of the child in order to make him a man. Nature itself is a great teacher and gives education in a easy and comprehensive manner.

(iv) Maximum Freedom to the child: Freedom is the watchword of naturalistic education. The school should provide an atmosphere of complete freedom. There should not be any imposition, force, control and coercion. Teacher should allow the child to develop freely and express his best self spontaneously.

(v) Direct experience: The basic elements in the naturalistic methods of education is that it lays emphasis on the direct experiences of the child. No bookish knowledge or verbal studies be given. Because books provide second hand information. The child should get first hand knowledge from experience. He should learn by doing, learn through activities.

(vi) Negative education: The negative education according to naturalism supports Rousseau’s thinking on education. According to him, the early education of the child should be purely negative and in it an effort should be made to save him from vices and mistakes. There is no place of bookish knowledge, no formal lessons, no habit formation and no moral education in negative education.

(vii) Instincts-the basis of education: Naturalistic education regards instincts as the basis of all education. The teacher should fully exploit child’s instincts and try to modify his behaviour.

(viii) Sense training: Senses are the gateways of knowledge. We perceive the knowledge of the objective world through senses. So, training should be given to the senses for developing sensory power. Correct sensation leads to correct perception and correct perception leads to correct conception. Naturalist believes that for effective training, adequate sensory experience should be provided to the child.

17. What do you mean by pragmatism in education? What should be the aims of education according to pragmatism? 

Ans: Pragmatism emerged in the 20th century revolution against the 19th century rationalism, dogmatism, universalism etc. On the basis of their philosophy, pragmatism, had strongly refuted the doctrine provided by other philosophers and presented their own novel propositions. It aims at developing efficiency of the pupil through activities and experience. This philosophy does not believe in imparting education for the sake of education. 

Education should enable the child to solve his daily problems and to lead a better and happier life. Pragmatic thinking is opposed to all kinds of dogmatism, blind faith, narrow mindedness etc. Pragmatism favour frequent experimentation in the field of education in order to determine more modern ideals according to present day social life. According to Brubacher, “The progressive education has no fixed aims or values in advance.” All the aims of education must be concerned with the present and the future and must be subject to modification.

2nd Part: Pragmatism does not believe in setting any general goals or fixed aims of education. The aims of education according to the pragmatism are as follows:

(i) Creation of new values: Pragmatism does not concern itself with the ultimate or pre-planned aims in education. Aims must be revised with the changing times and needs.

(ii) Activity and experience: Activity and experience is the central aspects of pragmatism. Everything is tested on the touch stone of experience. Pragmatism is a work philosophy. Activity lies at the centre of all educative process.

(iii) Harmonious development: All round development of the individual is also an important aims of education according to pragmatism. Education aims at the comprehensive development of the educand.

(iv) Personal and social adjustment: Pragmatic education aim at social as well as personal adjustment. Pragmatism does not agree that outside influence and beliefs should be imposed on the child.

(v) Continuous reconstruction of experiences: Another important aim of pragmatic education in the reconstruction of experiences in the light of new situations. Pragmatism emphasizes adaptation to environment, construction and reconstruction of experience and development of capacities to control the environment.

(vi) Social efficiency: The aim of pragmatic education is to develop social qualities like love, sympathy, tolerance, adjustment. The pragmatic aim of education is preparing the students to face the trials and tribulations of life and making them fit for their physical and social environment.

(vii) Development of personality: Pragmatic education aims at the development of well integrated personality of the child. 

18. Explain the curriculum and teacher according to pragmatism.

Ans: Pragmatism and curriculum: Pragmatists favor an educational curricula which permits the educand to develop all his qualities and obtain all knowledge that he can use fruitfully in future life. Pragmatism lays down the following principles for constructing a curriculum:

(i) Principles of flexibility and dynamism: Pragmatism believes in change and they are always in favour of changing situation. According to pragmatism curriculum should be flexible and comprehensive.

(ii) Principle of utility: Practical utility is the only watch-word and the guiding principle of pragmatism. The greater the satisfaction of human needs, the greater is the utility of the object achieving such satisfaction. According to pragmatists the subjects like language, literature, physical, education, hygiene, history, geography, civics, sociology, psychology, anthropology etc. should be included in the curriculum.

(iii) Principles of child’s interest: According to pragmatism, curriculum should be constructed with due regard to the stages of development of children. In order to shape the curriculum and according to these interests, it should include reading, writing, arithmetic, counting, handicraft, painting etc.

(iv) Principle of child’s activity and experiences: The pragmatic thinkers insist on teaching through providing the child with actual experience rather than rote learning.

(v) Principle of integration: According to pragmatism curriculum should not comprise water-tight compartmentalisation of knowledge into different subjects.

2nd Part: Pragmatism and Teacher:

The teacher is not a dictator but only a leader of group activities. Teacher is the sympathetic guide and a counsellor who educates the child to be self-disciplined and active partisioner. He is director, not a dictator. He has to plan and organise the teaching-learning situation, provide learning experiences and opportunities for experimentation. 

It is essential for a teacher to present a good model in his own behaviour to create an atmosphere of cooperation and brotherhood. The chief function of the teacher is to create real life situation. He is a friend, philosopher and helper of the student. So, the teacher must aim at creating a desirable social environment and at evolving proper educational technique.

19. Give a brief account of discipline as given by pragmatism. 

Ans: The pragmatist believed that purposeful and cooperative activities carried on in free and happy environment are conducive to good discipline. Such activities create in children virtues like tolerance, mutual respect, self-control, initiative and originality. Regarding discipline, the following principle favors pragmatism:

(i) Social discipline: Pragmatist believed that the child must be benefited from his social environment. 

(ii) Democratic discipline: Freedom is an important element in the pragmatist conception of discipline. It is assumed that the aim of education is to generate democratic qualities and for it most important is liberty.

(iii) Self discipline: Pragmatism do not believe in the adage that “work while you work and play while you play.” If the activities of children are rooted in the interests, capacities, preferences of children, then there is no problem of discipline. This type of discipline known as self-discipline and the child should be inspired by this self discipline to engage in those activities which led to the fulfilment of his social obligations.

(iv) Discipline through social responsibility: Pragmatism also emphasis social discipline through participation in cooperative activities in the social activity. A teacher has to do to create discipline is to evoke a sense of social responsibility in the child.

20. Discuss the contribution of pragmatism in the field of education.

Ans: Pragmatism has made significant contribution to the modern educational theory and practice. Contribution of pragmatism to education are as under:

(i) Pragmatism provides definite aim of education. The student is prepared to live in society and learn skills and attitudes which are required for him to live as a useful member of society. 

(ii) Utility in the educative process is the first criterion. The school is expected to provide learnings and experiences that are useful. 

(iii) Pragmatism makes child the centre of the educative process.

(iv) Teaching methods are based on ‘learning by doing’. Child is put into real situations so that he may be able to grapple with them and solve the problems that arise from them.

(v) Discussion, questioning, inquiring, touching and handling situations are provided. 

(vi) Education is not bound to tradition. Pragmatic philosophers advise us to test everything through our own experience. 

(vii) Pragmatism encourages a democratic way of learning through purposeful and cooperative projects and activities.

(viii) The pragmatic approach is based on the recognition of the needs of a technological and industrialised society. Newspapers, journals, radio and television become important media of education.

(ix) The teacher has to play a very challenging role in the educative process under pragmatism and he has to be very alert and watchful.

21. Compare between idealism and pragmatism in regards to aims of education and methods of teaching.

Ans: Comparative study of Idealism and pragmatism in regards to aims of education and methods of teaching are mentioned below:

Aims of Education

Methods of Teaching

22. Compare and contrast the aims of education teacher and discipline of pragmatism and naturalism. 

Ans: The comparative study of the aims of education, teacher and discipline of pragmatism and naturalism are mentioned below:

Aims of Education

Role of Teacher

Discipline

23. Compare and contrast the curriculum, methods of teaching and teacher of pragmatism and idealism. 

Ans: The comparative study of the curriculum methods of teaching and teacher of pragmatism and idealism are mentioned below:

Curriculum

Methods of Teaching

Role of Teacher