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Indian Classical Literature Unit 2 Selections From Epic Sanskrit Literature
Indian Classical Literature Unit 2 Selections From Epic Sanskrit Literature Notes cover all the exercise questions in UGC Syllabus. The Indian Classical Literature Unit 2 Selections From Epic Sanskrit Literature provided here ensures a smooth and easy understanding of all the concepts. Understand the concepts behind every Unit and score well in the board exams.
Q 8: Role of Dhritarashtra.
Ans: Dhrtarastra plays a crucial role in the dice game. Firstly, in the form of approval that he gives to Duryodhana for the game of dice to take place. Secondly, it is he who sends the invitation to Yudhistira for the game and which Yudhistira cites as his own reason for accepting to go to the same. Thus, in order to understand why the disastrous game actually takes place. It is important to understand Dhrtarastra.’s motives and actions as well. Initially, when Duryodhana and Shakuni approach him with the proposal to hold a game of dice and invite Yudhistira to it, Dhritarashtra shows insight and great wisdom and refuses to give his consent to it. He cites very reasonable arguments for his disapproval of such a proposal by Duryodhana such as the idea that the game of dice will surely result in a bitter quarrel and divide the family. He also argues that Duryodhana is not in the right frame of mind and is acting out of resentment, which even the text of the Mahabharata suggests. Thus, up to this point in the epic, the audience is encouraged to regard Dhritarashtra with sympathy.
However, Dhrtrastra then changes his mind even though he is well aware of the disastrous consequences of the game of dice. The text gives several reasons for his change of heart. There is more than a hint that Dhrtarastra gives in to his affection for his spoilt son upon hearing of his state of misery. He also blames fate. Another crucial aspect of this is that he argues that when a man is to meet his destruction and misfortune, his own mind loses–the capacity to act reasonably which results in a confused state of mind and wrong course of action. So many reasons provided for the cause of change in his heart then complicate the issue and result in the audience’s estrangement from the character of Dhrtratsra. The audience is then encouraged to look at the idea that such characters, in their confused and impassioned states of mind, take wrong decisions which appear proper to them at that time, and which are not merely a result of some inherent evil in these characters. Thus, their own suffering and despair provide the impetus to their wrong decisions and conduct. It again complicates the idea of what then is the dhamia that one should follow to avoid suffering in this world- whether one should value individual ties of the family or go beyond it, to look for universal good?
Q 9: Role of Yudhisthira
Ans: Yudhistira is the son of Dharma and also known as Dharmaraja or the king of dharma. Upto the dicing episode, his conduct determines the epic audience’s view of what is right or wrong conduct. However, in the game of dice, he accepts the challenge because he thinks he has to fulfil some obligations on his person. He says that as part of his kula dharma or family dharma and obligation, he has to accept the order of the father or the head of the family- Dhrtarastra. Moreover, as a kshatriya he has to accept any unforeseen challenges. And finally, he argues that it is his fate which has impelled him to follow this course. By providing multiple reasons for his acceptance of the game of dice, even though he was aware of the fact that it will only wreck havoc, the text encourages the audience of the epic to question the assumption that Yudhistira may be a trustworthy moral guide to right conduct and dharma in the Mahabharata for his conception of dharma eventually leads to great destruction and suffering in the epic, starting with the game of dice.
Q 10: Dharma in the Mahabharata
Ans: The disrobing of Draupadi and the violation of her honour in the dicing episode is perhaps the pivotal event, to which all the other characters in the epic respond in different ways and at different points in the narrative. They struggle to make sense of a world in which a virtuous woman like her is left unprotected by her protectors, and also in effect, dharma.
Dharma can be defined in many different ways. Dharma is the total order of things in the universe. It is multifaceted, elusive and subtle. In the epic the characters are in constant search for an elusive dharma or conduct or path to live life in accordance with precepts of dharma. The question that arises at different points in the epic, including the dicing scene is regarding the correct path to follow- societal rules or universal good?
The issue of how to reconcile self-interest with the right course of action, or dharma for a particular actor is a central preoccupation of the epic. How do human beings perform the right action while still following their interests in this world? The focus in the epic and the Bhagavad Gita is on the idea of nishkama – karma, or actions and duties performed without personal desires. Such actions should be performed for the greater good. In a way, this idea of desireless action performed for the good of one’s group was therefore linked to maintenance of strict hierarchical structures and groups in society. For the individual was supposed to keep his own desires aside and work for his group in society. He must only perform actions appropriate to his group and not try to move beyond his position or station in the hierarchical structure.
According to Wendy Doniger, “The Mahabharata both challenges and justifies the entire class structure.” She argues that the period when the epic was being shaped into its present form was one of transition. At this time while the caste structures in society were hardening into hierarchical formations, so as to be able to conquer and include various indigenous people like forest dwellers, tribes and others belonging to the lower rungs of the social order, many sects and groups were challenging the concepts of dharma and violence. Buddhists, Jainas and other groups challenged the assumptions of the caste system. Around this time., with the popularisation of Asoka’s ideas on dhamma/dharma which could belong to all men and was a general order of things for right-minded men, the whole idea of dharma as belonging to a particular caste of Brahmins or even Kshatriyas was being questioned.
According to James Fitzgerald, resolving of the tension between conflicting senses of dharma drove some Brahmins to create the Mahabharata. Thus, an exploration of a more complex notion of dharma through narrative, rather than a direct exposition, constitutes an important aspect of the meaning of the Mahabharata.
Fitzgerald argues that in the first sense, dharma means a righteous path or duty to conduct life with the goal of achieving happiness on earth and in heaven after death. In the second sense, however, dharma signifies a sense of detachment from the pursuit of personal happiness to achieve peace and compassion for all.
Emily T. Hudson argues that this perhaps helps to explain why the treatment of dharma in the epic is varied and ambiguous. Dharma eludes the characters in the epic. This is borne out well in the dicing episode. The depiction in it of Draupadi’s cruel disrobing and violation is a very disturbing one. Draupadi suffers immensely from cruelty. Just as Yudhistira wagers and loses Draupadi, Duryodhana gives orders to bring her into the hall as a slave.
The reason why this episode cuts so deep in the mind of the audience is the sheer silence of the elders and the learned men in the court who are thought to be aware of dharma and yet do not prevent such an act of cruelty. Draupadi continues to ask the court full of men belonging to her own family as to why they are not coming forth to protect her. Unable to answer her question about the wager, these wise men are perhaps unable to act because they cannot interpret dharma.
Draupadi’s question is associated with legalities of ownership. Can Yudhistira stake her in the game when he has already lost his own self as a stake before wagering her? This question also raises the issue of whether a woman is a man’s slave and can be staked at his will. These questions address the problematic issues of dharma and ownership, particularly of women within a patriarchal set-up.
Another important dimension of Draupadi’s violation is that it makes one question why dharma should be followed if it cannot help or protect even a virtuous woman like Draupadi, who has always upheld the path of right conduct? In the light of Draupadi’s sufferings, the text then suggests that the way these men have viewed dharma as a category that brings happiness to one’s life is perhaps a flawed one. For Draupadi, it Leads to immense trauma and suffering. Dharma, per-haps, is not to be followed for personal gains, if the massive destruction of the war is to be taken as one amongst many such examples.
It is notable that an important idea or concept in the Mahabharata in relation to dharma is that of compas-sion or karuna. Compassion for other human beings is every individual’s dharma in relation to some universal truths. For instance, Duryodhana in the dice game com-mits a defining, villainous act of cruelty when he becomes the primary agent of the cause of sufferings of Draupadi. The textual strategies of the Mahabharata make the audience identify with those characters in the epic who are either the victims of suffering or those involved in prevention of it.
So, while we are distanced from the character of Duryodhana, the sufferings of Draupadi not only stay with the audience but even the characters in the epic keep responding to it in different ways, especially in relation to dharma. Vikarna, one of Duryodhana’s younger brothers, is one such character in the epic. When the elders including the three wise men, Yudhistira, Bhisma and Vidura remain silent during the whole episode, Vikarna raises his voice in protest. He argues that the whole game of dice is wrong. A woman is not someone who can be used as a piece of property to be wagered in a game. The silence of the elders and Vikarna’s comments clearly show that women at the time were considered the property of men. It suggests an increasing rigidity of patriarchal norms and structures in society.
In fact, many critics of Mahabharata argue that the depiction of Draupadi in the dicing episode points towards many such rigid codes of patriarchal norms. The narrative of Krishna intervening on behalf of Draupadi and providing cloth to protect her honour is said to be a later addition to the epic suggesting the presence of an increasing rigid patriarchal structure in society, where a woman could only be protected by a man. Indeed, in the earlier version of the narrative, critics have pointed out, it was Draupadi’s own virtue which made the whole cosmos, as it were, to come to her aid and not Krishna’s divine assistance.
Vikarna’s arguments then suggest that an eternal truth like the one that women cannot be wagered is at vari-ance with the specific truth of patriarchal norms and conduct. Vikarna’s protest comes at a time when the learned elders in the assembly hall remain silent upon witnessing Draupadi’s humiliation. The truth emerges from an unlikely quarter like Vikarna’s protest, and the epic therefore suggests that universal truth will ultimately sur-face no matter what the circumstances or norms are in place in society.”
Thus, the text of the epic, particularly in the silence. of men learned in the ways of dharma in the dicing episode, does not privilege any path of conduct as the right one. This suggests that dharma cannot be learnt from books or it cannot really be studied. It has to be – applied to one’s life and is constantly put to test. Many times in the epic, the characters are faced with conflicting dharmas and have to make crucial choices which affect their own lives along with others.
Q 11. Question of Fate/Chance in the Game of Dice.
Ans: Fate or chance is often invoked in the Mahabharata to explain the paradoxical behaviour of many of its characters. The narrative voice and the characters in the Mahabharata blame fate (Daiva) for the many misfortunes that befall them beginning with the game of dice. The tension between desires and human actions and the role of fate is an important aspect of the dicing scene. The question that is posed in this episode is to what extent fate plays a role in causing the dice game and the immense suffering that unfolded.
According to Nicholas Sutton, “There is no clear solution to the question of which force is supreme (De-sire or fate). Rather, the epic presents different possible accounts of their dynamic in order to engender in the reader a clear sense of the stakes involved in the issues raised by the power(or lack thereof) of each.”
It is significant to note in this context that Dwyodhana, smarting under the resentment at his public humiliation in Yudhistira’s assembly, saw fate as the cause of Pandavas’ rise in wealth and glory. According to him; fate is a greater power than human action because he is unable to understand why, despite all his efforts, it is Yudhistira who gets a radiant life and fortune.
Similarly, Dhrtarastra claims that he acquiesces to Duryodhana’s request for the game of dice because it is fated. The narrative voice of Vaisampayana, belonging to the inner narrative frame, clearly states that Dhrtarastra submits because of his fondness for his son.
This matter of fate versus will in the case of Dhritarashtra is not resolved through the text and the frame narrative renders it ambiguous.
But the text of the epic provides several ambiguous answers to the question of the role of fate in the most baffling aspect of this debate, which is Yudhistira’s ac-ceptance of Dhrtarashtra’s invitation to the doomed game of dice. An explanation is offered by Vyasa, who visited Yudhistira and informed him about the various portents that would happen when the Rajasuya is performed. Therefore, according to Vyasa’s account, the game of dice was fated. Yudhistira’s acceptance of the invitation to the game suggests his belief in the idea that outside forces beyond his control are operating. However, the text of the epic again leaves these tensions unresolved by suggesting that Yudhistira accepts due to both moral obligation and fate.
Fate or chance associated with the game of dice also suggests the unforeseen events and quests that a King has to face and master in order to emerge as the rightful ruler of a kingdom. Yudhistira accepts this chal-lenge as part of his dharma as a Kshatriya in the game.
Q 12: Women in the Dicing Episode.
Ans: When Draupadi questions Yudhistira’s right to wager her in the dicing match, she brings to fore theSuppression of women’s voices due to the patriarchal codes of wifely behaviour. Ironically, it is Draupadi who saves the Pandavas instead of them protecting her. In popular perception she is the person on whom the en-tire war is based. She actively participates in all the deliberations of her husbands and exhorts them to act.
In the world of Mahabharata, women can attain status only as mothers and wives. For instance, in order to beget suitable sons, Kunti chooses her own deities as suitable surrogate husbands. Gandhari also expresses her rage against her own marriage of political expedi-ency to a blind Dhritarashtra by being permanently blind-folded.
In the epic the women are strong characters who play a prominent role in the epic’s action and narrative. This was perhaps a reflection of the changes in the social structures at a time when the various recensions of the Mahabharata were compiled. These changes could have included the widespread recognition of women’s active role in pujas and sacred activities that were ear-lier performed only by men and which were central to Hindu life and culture. Another aspect of this could be the idea that such stories were also part of the vernacu-lar traditions in villages and rural spaces which ‘were less bound in their attitude to women. The individualistic and feisty nature of women of the Mahabharata can probably be understood in this context.
For instance, in the context of war, women in the epic take an active role and help decide the course of the future in important ways. They are unrelenting in their attempts to avenge the wrongs done to them. When Krishna comes on his mission of peace, Kunti tells him that she is unable to bear the separation from her sons for almost fourteen years. She also reminds her sons of the insult that Draupadi had to face in the midst of the assembly and spurs her sons to war.
Gandhari, in her own way, tries to make Duryodhana understand the consequences of greed and a naked lust for power, and also attempts to dissuade him from war. In relation to dharma, she can only conclude that victory – should be attained by only those who are righteous. Thus, in matters of war, peace and other important is-sues, women in the epic have their own, distinct points of view.
Polyandry
Numerous events in the lives of the women in the epic, like polyandry in their lineage, can also be seen as a challenge to patriarchal control of female sexuality. Polyandry in the lineage of women of the mahabharata is quite common. For instance, according to Wendy Doniger, Draupadi having five husbands is -evidence either of women’s greater sexual freedom or, perhaps, of men’s fear of what might happen were women to have that freedom.” This open-mindedness to polyandry would perhaps be explained by consider-= the cultural and historical milieu of the Mauryan Empire and the period just after the fall of Mauryan dynasty. It was a period in which the issue of status and role of women in society was a contentious one. Women of the royal 6mily and upper classes were participating in sacred activities.
They were generous donors to the Buddhist communities. Female ascetics were also a common phenomenon, as the case of Sulabha illustrates in the Mahabharata. There are suggestions that women were also involved in state-supervised economic work, like yarn spinning. All these reflect greater autonomy given to women in court and also villages in this period.” Yet, the increasing rigidity of patriarchal norms relegated them to the sphere of the household as mothers and wives. This is borne out well in the characters of Draupadi, Kunti, Gandhari and several other women in the epic who, though quite strong as individuals, can attain their status in society only as wives and mothers.
Indeed the epic’s complex treatment of its women characters and the world which they inhabit shows that the women in the Mahabharata are able to create some space for themselves in a patriarchal society.
Q 13: Role of Krishna in the Game of Dice
Ans: Interestingly, Krishna is conspicuously absent in the dicing episode, even though he comes to Draupadi’s aid when she suffers immense humiliation upon her disrobing. Critics like Alf Hiltebeitel argue, “Krishna’s absence is necessary otherwise the out-come would have been different. Even if he had been present at Dwarka when the game was announced, he says he would not have come to Hastinapur to prevent it. As Naraina or the Divine, perhaps he can only be a witness to the unfolding of events as individuals exercise their freedom of choice and the universal order arranges and rearranges itself accordingly.”
Krishna’s absence during the game of dice, which culminates in a brutal war, renders the question of his role mysterious in the Mahabharata like many other unresolved riddle questions. Who is Krishna if he does not prevent the game of dice? Is he human or divine? Many times in the battle, Krishna acts deviously. For instance, during the battle, in a popular story it is Krishna who is also held responsible for the beheading of Drona by making Yudhistira utter the lie that Ashwatthama has died.Yet his actions have to be understood in terms of dharma. Is he the Divine who acts deviously to restore the once-lost dharma on the earth? But the answer to this question is not a simple one for in order to establish dharma on earth, many immoral and unjust acts are committed.
In fact, the cheating, trickery and abuse in the game of dice is synonymous with the violence, abuse and immoral acts perpetrated during the war including the lies that Yudhistira, the Dharmaraja tells in order to win or the arms that Krishna takes up against Bhishma even though he has vowed not to fight. Thus, like the game of dice, the battle becomes the arena in which all ideas of right conduct, ethics and dharma are wiped out and what comes across is an undisguised lust for power.
Many passages in the epic suggest that Krishna could not have prevented either the game of dice or the destructive war because human beings acted according to their own will and as the Divine figure, he could only be the witness to the folding and unfolding of events in relation to their actions. The text of the epic also sug-gests that Krishna though he is unable to prevent the carnage, helps the Pandavas to win in order to establish justice•on earth, however much that justice or dharma is compromised by the immense suffering. Suffering in the Mahabharata An important and overwhelming aspect of the expe-rience of reading the Mahabharata turns out to be the stress laid on grief and suffering as an integral part of human life and experience. It almost seems like suffering along with dharma is the overriding factor contributing towards the source of meaning in the epic. This raises an important question in the epic- has suffering been given prime importance in the epic? Is the Mahabharata, then, an epic about dukha or suffering?
The characters in the epic describe their mental states or the quality of their minds as perplexed by the suffer-ing that they experience in life. For instance, Yudhistira laments the victory achieved at the cost of the death of his own kinsmen and the people of his kingdom. Gandhari’s grief at the loss of her own sons is another poignant example of an individual’s suffering in the epic.
Dhrtarastra also suffers from sadness and guilt because of the death of his sons and his own role in the war. Vidura tells him to go beyond his grief and find compassion for others. Thus, Mahabharata clearly shows that suffering in this world is not just of the individual but is faced by the collective. After the war all the women cry and lament the death and loss of their husbands, sons and fathers in the bloodshed.
At another level, then, the inability to understand the subtle meaning of dharma leads to suffering. This is borne out well in the inability of the wise men, during the dicing scene to solve Draupadi’s question. It is this fail-ure which resulted in her enormous suffering.
The Mahabharata lays great stress on suffering and encourages the audience to rethink the idea of following dharma for personal gains which leads to suffering in this world. It talks about the pursuit of life in which pain and happiness should be treated with equanimity.
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